Towards an Architecture based on
Vernacular Values in the Regions: On Paradigm of Asian Studies for Architecture
and Urban Planning
Prof. Dr. Shuji
Funo
Chairman of
Architectural Planning Committee
Chairman of
Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering (JAABE)
Architectural
Institute of Japan (AIJ)
Graduate School of
Environmental Planning The University of Shiga Prefecture
2500 Hassaka-cho ,
Hikone City, Shiga Prefecture 〒522-8533
tel= +81-(0)749-28-8200（Rep）0749-28-8272
Lab. fax: 8342) e-mail funo@ses.usp.ac.jp
Introduction
I have been
deeply involved in urban and architectural fields in Asia for more than a quarter
of a century since 1978, when we started the research project on human
settlements in Southeast Asia with my colleagues of Toyo University, Japan and
jointly with ITS (Institute Teknologi Surabaya) research Group leaded by Prof.
Johan Silas.
I firstly
carried out field survey on kampungs (urban villages)[1],
the word of which OED (Oxford English Dictionary) says, is the origin of the
word ‘compound’. Hearing that the enclosed living quarter in Batavia and
Malacca was called ‘kampung’, Englishman began to use the word ‘kampung=compound’
to native settlement in India in early 19th century, thereafter also
in Africa. I am sure now that kampung is so interesting as a model of urban
community to be developed to the neighborhood unit of a new town even in another
countries[2].
Anyway, the world of kampung opened my eyes to the vast field of urabn tissues
in Asia.
I wrote my doctorate
thesis titled "Studies on Transitional Process of Kampung and Kampung
Housing System --Considerations on Alternative Strategies for Housing"(Tokyo
University) in 1987[3]
and had an opportunity to build an experimental house dubbed as “Surabaya Eco
House” in 1997-9 based on almost ten years of field work.
After moving
to Kyoto University, I concentrated on rural settlements in Lombok Island next
to Bali Island for several years. And in that island, we discovered a unique
Hindu city named Cakranegara, which soon became clear to have been established
as a colonial city of Balinese kingdom named ‘Karangasem’ in early 18th
century. To compare the Hindu city and Muslim city has become one of the
subjects of my research from that time. The fact that the formation of Muslim
quarters are very different from that of Hindu quarters in Cakranegara further
expanded the field of my research. I wrote a paper[4]
on Cakranegara in 2002.
Looking for
the target city next to Cakranegara, we thought of Jaipur[5],
the capital of Rajasthan, India, famous as a gridiron city, which was
constructed by Jai Singh II in the same early 18th century as was
Cakranegara. Two cities. one of which is located at the western end, and the
other at the eastern end of the Hindu civilization, were thought as two typical
models of Hindu city, so we decided to develop our research field to Indian
Subcontinent. We surveyed many cities as Ahmedabad[6],
Madurai[7],
Varanasi,[8]
Lahore, Delhi, Katmandu[9](Nepal),
Patan[10](Nepal),
Thimi[11](Nepal)
and othr towns in the region until now.
I wrote a book
titled “The City as Mandala; The Spatial Idea of Hindu City and its
Transformation”(Japanese) in 2006 by picking up three cities, Madurai, Jaipur
and Cakranegara and am preparing with Dr. M.M Pant to publish a book titled “Stupa
& Swastika; A study on planning principles of Patan, Katmandu Valley”(English)
in 2007.
Next
step had come with research project on colonial city funded by Ministry of
Education and Science, Japan since 1997. We recognized the great western impact
on city planning in Asia through studies on urban tissues for these years. For
the first two years (1997-98), we concentrated on the British colonial cities
like Munbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras), Kolkata (Calcutta)[12],
which led to the idea of modern planning method for all over the world and turn
our eyes to Dutch colonial cities in Asia. AThe reason is that many cities in
Asia originated from the bases(lodges, factories, forts, castles) of Portuguese
and --especially, The Netherlands had been the only country for Japanese to
contact the world through Dezima during 1641-1853.
The Netherlands colonized Indonesian
Archipelago and established Batavia (Jakarta) as a powerful headquarter of
Dutch East India Company (VOC), which closely connected Dezima, Nagasaki, Japan
to the Modern World system. We conducted field survey on Jakarta[13],
Malacca, Galle, Colombo, Cochin[14],
Nagapattinam[15]…Cape
Town and finally stretching our legs to Dutch colonial cities in West Indies as
Recife (Brazil), Paramaribo (Surinam), Willemstad (Curacao). In terms of
colonial cities, we had chances twice to hold international symposia at SINICA,
Taiwan[16].
In terms of
cities and architecture in East Asia, we are learning a lot from studies done
by colleagues in China and Korea, through JAABE and ISAIA. I am making a study
on Beijing[17],
Taipei[18],
and Korean cities till the moment with foreign students from Asia.
Based on my
experiences in Asian field for a quarter century, I will raise the further
topics to clarify from the East.
Ⅰ
Beyond Dichotomy of Europe vs. Asia
Western
ideas, methods and techniques related architecture, building construction, and
urban planning have been influential to Japan since Meiji Restoration, which is
the same in Korea and China. It is notable that Chuta Itoh (1867-1952), a very
unique Japanese architect & architectural historian, who was so interested
in Asian architecture competitive to European architecture and traveled from
Tokyo to Athens through the Eurasian Continent, western architecture is always
model to follow up. He was eager to prove Goju-no-tou (a five-storied pagoda)
of Horyuji temple, which is the world oldest wooden structure, is comparable to
the Parthenon Temple in Athens. The dichotomy of the west and the east, or
Europe vs. Asia continues to dominate our brain and frame of references. For
western architects like Josiah Condor who was the first professor to teach
history of architecture and building construction to Japanese, the problems in adapting
the western idea and method to the local conditions was the most important
issue to solve. English architects had already grappled with harmonization
Indo-Saracen architecture and European architecture in India.
Chuta
Itoh wrote a paper titled ‘Asia is one’ following Tenshin Okakura’s “The Ideal
of East” published in London. However, It is not saying that Asia is not one.
Asia has many architectural traditions region by region.
It is
our task to discover indigenous principles of architectural techniques and
planning methods and to clarify the relationship between regions. I wrote two
text books, one is “A History of Asian Cities and Architecture”, which is now
on the process of translation both in China and Korea and the other is “The
Houses across the World”. I think a plenty of works to stimulate our curiosity
in Asian fields are left.
How to
define
geographical range of Asia and how to differentiate the periods in history
is an issue of primary importance. We indeed need a global view of
architectural history.
I
suppose the world of vernacular architecture constitutes the base of
architectural development in the region. From the north to the south and from
the east and west, Eurasia consists of various districts from the ecological
view point. And Asia has 3 regional cores of urban civilizations, Egypt,
Mesopotamia, Indus and Huang He, the influence of which extended all over Asia.
Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism that rose and spread in Asia created the
architectural tradition of building types needed in each of the regions.
Chinese tradition of architecture and city planning is also very influential
especially in East and Southeast Asia. If we see the architectural tradition in
Southeast Asia, several layers of influences due to Indianization,
Sinicization, Islamication, Westernization, and Modernization, could be
differentiated in even one city.
What we should clarify is not one architectural system
but various streams of architectural traditions in Asia.
Ⅱ Housing System based on Eco-System in the
Region
Housing and urban issues are still
big problems in Asian countries, especially in developing countries. We have many problems to solve
and many tasks to implement in the field of housing that require collaboration.
We can learn a lot from kampungs and Kampung Improvement Program (KIP) s, which
are based on own values as I mentioned above.
Urban
settlements in the cities of developing countries are not the impedances to be
swept away. Most of them are in poor condition physically, and economically but
are not necessarily poor socially. It should be emphasized that urban
settlement in the developing countries is not a slum, which shows different
appearances from slums in Western cities. Destruction of social structure, bad
and criminal acts etc. are not rarely seen in developing countries. Kampung is
not a discriminated settlement. Kampung community has own system. When we plan
and design city or urban settlement, we must respect the values urban
settlement has maintained.
The
characteristics to be noticed in planning are as follows.
(1) Variety of
Urban settlements
Each urban
settlement has its own characteristics that varies according to location
(distance from the city center), constitution of income groups, migratory
backgrounds of inhabitants or mobility of population, its history, its spatial
pattern and so on. It's very important that distribution of various urban
settlements give alternatives when people choose the place to live. Even the
poorest income group can find some living quarters. Some scholar insists that
variety of urban settlement is only a solution to the housing problems at the
moment in developing regions.
(2) Urban
Settlements and their World
Urban
settlement is not a mere residential settlements. New town in Japan, for
example, is often called Bed (Dormitory) Town because it has no other functions
except sleeping (staying) especially for business man. But urban settlement in
general has both functions of production and consumption. The cycle from
production to consumption can be a closed one within an urban settlement such as
kampung. Living place is very near to workplace. Almost all the daily
activities can be carried out in the neighborhood unit. It must be pointed out
that urban settlement itself is parasitic to the city center, which has various
facilities for job opportunity. They cannot survive without earning money from
outside the kampung. But urban settlement largely forms autonomous and
self-contained community.
(3)
Heterogeneity of Urban Settlement
Urban
settlement like kampung forms plural society and is not a homogeneous
community. Mix habitation, which means the situation various groups live
together in a same area, is a characteristic of kampung. Rich people often live
in next door to poor people. It should be noticed that rich people support the
life of the poor even in the poorest kampungs.
(4) Urban
Settlement as a Highly Serviced Society---Hawkers (peddlers)' culture
Everybody can
get almost all the kinds of foods and goods for daily life because street
vendor and peddlers are always rambling to serve the inhabitants. It is because
job opportunity is very scarce in the kampung. But for the inhabitants, kampung
is a highly serviced society.
(5) Mutual Aid
System
Urban
settlement like kampung communities is usually well organized. The inhabitants help
themselves through the mutual aid activities, which is indispensable in the
kampung life. The spirit of mutual aid characterizes kampung community.
(6)
Preservation of Traditional Culture
People tend to preserve the traditional way of life in the rural village
from where he comes. Urban settlement should be considered to be a settlement
that has own vernacular values.
(7) Housing as
a Process
Housing is a
process. Urban settlements are generated by accumulating infinite housing
process involving all the diversities of its inhabitants. In urban (Regional) planning or
housing project, we should accept growth and a gradual process of addition in
the making of an individual house.
(8) Complicated
Ownership Relations
It is one of
the major characteristics that ownership relations are complicated. It may
appear as a development lag in the modern world, but complicated land ownership
relations sometimes help in resisting the urban property speculation.
I think
how to evaluate these features of urban settlements is very important in
planning and designing. What can we do in front of the realities of cities of
developing countries? I suggest that we should follow the basic principles of
urban planning below.
A Autonomy
& People's Participation
B Network
Structure in place of Hierarchical Structure
C Housing by
Self help and Mutual aid
D Housing as a
process
E Housing based
on vernacular value
F Housing
system based on Eco-system
G Appropriate
Technology for housing
We have
possibilities to encounter disaster anywhere and anytime. We had earthquakes
like Pakistan (2005) and central Jawa (2006). I myself fortunately could have
survived from Indian Ocean Tsunami when I was on the coast in Sri Lanka on that
day. Disaster housing system should be established in partnership among Asian
countries.
Ⅲ Urban Resources as
Mutual Heritage
Most of the big cities in Asia are becoming
similar and similar because buildings are built by using the same materials and
same construction techniques based on Industrialization. Buildings that formed
the core of old town in Asian countries are being replaced by high-rise
buildings in the same way. Even modern architecture built 50 years ago is
hanging by a thread. How to preserve, conserve and revitalize the old core of the
cities is one crucial problem common to Asian cities.
In case
of many cities whose origins are traced back to the colonial period, the
problem presents certain complications since reconstruction or preservation of
colonial monuments built by Europeans recalls the memory of domination and
exploitation. It is natural for Indonesian people to oppose the proposal of
reconstruction of Batavia castle by the Netherlands.
But we have a
case in Sri Lanka who launches the concept of mutual heritage and dual parentage.
European culture has already penetrated into most of the regions in South and
Southeast Asia sometimes deeply or partially. Sri Lanka is willingly to
propose, for example, Galle Fort built by Dutch is registered as a world
heritage site.
However we also have opposing instance in East Asia. Old Korean National
Museum (the former Japanese Colonial Office (Chosen Sotokuhu) building) was
destructed in 1995, for the 50th anniversary of liberation, which I
believe is political correctness. On the other hand, the former Japanese
Colonial Office in Taipei (Taiwan Sotokuhu) is still being used as home of
presidents. It depends upon the case, which way people chose.
Anyway, the periods
of scrap and build have gone. How to reuse and convert the architectural stocks
are important issues for the revitalization of the old urban core in Asian
cities. We have many good examples in Korea.
Ⅳ Eco-cycled Architecture and Environmental
Restoration
We have a
chance to build an experimental house called Surabaya Eco house, which aims at
developing the model of collective housing in South East Asia (Humid Tropical
Regions). This experimental project firstly launch the basic plan based on our
previous studies on kampungs. Our proposal was luckily accepted as a project by
IDI (International Foundation Development of Infrastructure), and the model
house was built at Surabaya (ITS campus, Indonesia) in June 1998. We have
monitored the environmental conditions of Eco-cycle House. We are thinking to
try the experiment based on the analysis and to push out our model to be popularized
in the near future.
The
basic techniques and methods are as follows
A.
Skeleton-Infill Structural Method
We have
designed a building’s skeleton of long-durable concrete structure, and
partitions and exterior walls (Infill) of flexible structure to accommodate
dwellers needs, allowing them to participate (Do-it-Yourself).
B. Planning
Adequate to Local Life Style
Local life
style has been given priority by enlarging sections for common use in collective
houses, with broader free and common space arrangements. Private sections have
been made more independent space.
C. Passive
Cooling Technology
①Double Roofing
To
effectively break sunlight heat, the roof has been designed as
double-layered-roof with heat-insulating and air layers. The heat-insulating material
has been developed of local products, coconut fiber. The air layer is placed
the outer-side of heat-insulator intending quick spontaneous discharge of
sunlight heat.
②Windows
and Outer Walls for Insulating Sunlight Heat
A bigger roof and deeper eaves have been
built to cut the sunlight, and a wooden-side walls system not to absorb
sunlight heat.
③Shared
Open Space Arrangements, Ventilation and Natural Lighting
The
free and open air space shared in common has been utilized to secure horizontal
and vertical ventilation channels. Windows have been installed on the top roof
to facilitate ventilation and heat discharge, and to get natural lighting. And
a 3-story high void space has been built at the center of the building.
④Ventilation Channels in Private Sections
To
facilitate cross ventilation in private sections, an arrangement of openings
and operating system have been designed. Two openings have been installed on
the outer wall, and a vent window onto commonly shared open space. The
operating system has been designed to allow ventilation not only during daytime
but also at night.
⑤Cold
Storage by Night Ventilation
Concrete
floor slab with big thermal capacity is utilized as a cooling system. Cool air
is led into rooms by the night ventilation to store the coolness in the
concrete floor. This provides a coolant for the next daytime.
⑥Radiant Cooling System by Circulating Water
A polypropylene pipe is buried in the
concrete slab floor to circulate well water for radiant cooling effect. The
well water is kept in underground tank beneath the ground floor and is
circulated by a solar-photovoltaic driven pump. The circulated water is reused
for flushing toilets or sprinkling.
After completion
of the building, the thermal conditions have been monitored to verify the
passive cooling effect. The effects of ventilating layers and heat-insulation
materials are quite remarkable. The coconut fiber’s heat resistance can be
estimated, and it has been proved to have good thermal properties as insulation
materials. The concrete floor slab was cooled down by massive ventilation at
night when temperature goes down, to determine the effects of cold storage. The
daytime temperatures are about 2 degrees lower than the case without any night
ventilation. The floor slab surface has a promising cooling radiation. Circulating-water
radiant cooling effects fluctuate according to the water temperatures. The
lower the water temperature the better the effect, but even at 28 degrees is
sufficient for the radiant cooling effect.
My experience
above is still limited and has many problems to be discussed, but the so-called
Eco-cycled Architecture is one of our subjects we should continue to study.
Restoration of
natural environment is becoming very stimulated and standing issue for us to
pursue after Cheong Gye Cheon Project, which can be truly called ‘ A Revolution
in Seoul’.
It is
impossible to remove elevated highway and covering of river in the city center
, because heavy traffic jam should occur in most of the cities. However, the
greatness of Cheong Gye Cheon Project exists not only on the point that removes
high way from the viewpoint of urban landscape, but more splendidly the impact
produced by the project to the city center are multiplying.
The Project
declared ‘Paradigm shift of urban management-Development à High quality of life-from Functionality and Efficiency to Environmental protection and preservation and Human-oriented and Environment-friendly city, and stated ‘Urban Rebirth： Recovery of
600 year-history and culture-Rediscover
of Seoul’s historical roots and original look and Cultural
space for all citizens.
It is true
that structures had been beyond repair and pollution of river was very severe.
Fundamental solution was needed to safety problem and improvement of quality of
water.
Water supply plan for
intermittent stream (water from
the Han river: 120,000 ton/day, underground water from subway stations: 22,000 ton/day), waterway plan (average water
depth: 40 cm, flow
velocity: 0.24 m/sec)
and sewer system are well planned.
Restoration of ecological environment (wild plants along the stream, green areas for insects and birds, reservoirs for fish way and water-depth control) is bringing an immediate result. Water quality was strikingly bettered(BOD: 100~250→1~2 ppm) and the number of species of fishes, birds and insects is increasing.
The
most splendid experience of Cheong Gye Cheon Project
is revitalization of downtown and the
method to stimulate urban redevelopment
of neighborhood around Cheong Gye Cheon stream. There are still sprawling commercial districts around Cheong Gye Cheon (Homes more than
200,000 merchants and 60,000shops). The
areas still look like slums due to dilapidated buildings aged
40-50years, but are vital part of
Seoul’s economy. Doing away with the worry about
business decline during restoration project due
to access
difficulty, traffic congestion, noise and dust, was
the key of the Project. A huge amount of time and energy were poured into collecting opinion of merchants
through public hearings (More than
4,000 interviews to Organization
of CGC Residents & Merchants Council and CGC Merchants Association). One of the most important effects in the Project is the process
of people’s participation in this process of implementation.
Ⅴ Asian Traditions of Architecture and Urban
Planning
When we
are going to step in historical studies and field studies on Asian
architecture, a huge amount of works are laid in front of us.
If I
list several subjects to be pursued from a Japanese view points and concerns,
followings are very attractive.
1. An
Anthropology of Architecture in Asia (AAA)
Where are roots or
archetypes of Japanese traditional architecture is one of our concerns. It is
taught that Japanese domestic architecture have two archetypes, ground floor
type (Tateana, pit house style) and raised floor type (Takayuka, highblock
house style), which are thought to be traced back to two origins, i.e. the
north or the west and the south. The ground floor type forms the tradition of
folk houses for commoners and raised floor type forms the tradition of Shinto
shrines, storages and houses for the nobles (Shinden zukuri, Shoin zukuri,…).
These two traditions are, of course, related to those of China and Korean
peninsula. The latter traditions are common in Austronesian world that extends
from Easter Island to Madagascar Island, the origin of which is considered
Taiwan or South China[19].
We have already
“Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World” [20] by P.
Oliver. We have to clarify various roots of architecture in Eurasian Continent.
2. World
History of Buddhist Architecture
Buddhist temples
introduced through Korean peninsula from China made great impacts to Japanese
architecture. However, the history of Buddhist architecture is written as
closed story within Japan. We need more cross cultural views. How and why, for
examples, the original form of Stupa had been modified into various forms
region by region should be explained interactively. As for building
construction techniques, especially, Japan and Korea accepted great impacts
from China and modified the form in the process to adapt to the local
conditions, which is interesting subject to be studied collaboratively from
broad view.
3. The
Idea of City and Cosmology in Asia
If we look at the
tradition of cities in Asia, several stories are needed to be discussed. Asia
is roughly divided into two areas in terms of interrelations with urban form
and cosmologies. Asia has two cores, which established the idea of city, India
and China. Both had strong influences to their peripheral regions. Hindu idea
of City, which had been written in “Arthasastra” or “Vastusastra”s like
“Manasara” and “Mayamata”, was transmitted to Southeast Asian regions like
Angkor, Myanmar, Thailand, Jawa, and Cakranegara. Ancient Chinese Idea of
capital city, which had been described in “周礼”考工記 and implemented
later in the form of Beijing, were transmitted to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
However, in western part of Eurasia which is now mostly Islam regions, we
cannot find interrelations between the form of the city and cosmology in the
regions. We have to clarify the various urban traditions in Asia.
Urban tissues in Asian cities at present
are also investigated carefully to propose the future of the city.
4. Modern
World System and History of Modern Architecture
Mongol united Eurasia in 13th
century and the world history was thus first described. On the other hand,
Europe established the so called modern world system during 1450-1640 according
to I. Wallerstein. As for history of architecture, global views are needed to
avoid Europe vs. Asia dichotomy. Asia has several strongholds of architectural
traditions as Janet L. Abu-Lughod shows[21].
We need to investigate the various traditions
before western impact. And then, Westernization becomes common subjects to
study cooperatively. We should look at what happened in Asia the process that
led to the acceptance of the idea of western architecture.
The study of colonial architecture and
colonial city will contribute to the study of acculturation, which discusses
the relations between the dominates vs. the dominated, European civilization vs.
indigenous culture. Who accept and reject what, is the key issue. Duration of
colonial periods, depth of penetration, levels of indigenous technologies,.
…should be carefully compared. It is said that Dutchmen had been wearing the
same clothes for the first hundred years in Indonesia. They firstly built their
houses in the same way as in their homeland by conveying all the building
materials from native land. The form and style of their houses, however, are
not appropriate to the climate in the tropics, so they adopt the vocabularies
and styles of vernacular architecture, for example, big roof that store cool
airs during night is needed, gradually.
The processes of acceptance of modern
architecture in Asian regions are mostly neglected by European architects. We
should know many talented western architects like McLain Pont and Thomas Kirsten
who made efforts to harmonize modern technologies to local conditions.
What I would
like to say again is that we have many tasks to study and implement based on
our own history and experience. Many important experiences are still neglected
from Orientalist’s view. I really expect the role and development of ISAIA and
JAABE from the bottom of my heart.
Notes
[1]
Shuji
Funo: Dominant Issues of Three Typical Kampungs and Evaluation of KIP, Peran
Perbaikan Kampung dalam Pembangunan Kota, KOTAMADJA SURABAYA ITS, 1985
[2]
Shuji
Funo, Naohiko Yamamoto, Johan Silas: Typology of Kampung Houses and their
Transformation Process A Study on Urban Tissues of Indonesian Cities, Journal
of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.1 No.2, pp193-200, Nov.
2002
[3]
AIJ Best Paper Award in 1991
[4]
Shuji
Funo: The Spatial Formation in Cakranegara, Lombok, in Peter J.M. Nas (ed.):Indonesian
town revisited, Muenster/Berlin, LitVerlag, 2002
[5]
Shuji
Funo, Lanshiang Huan, Shu Yamane, Naohiko Yamamoto, Mohan Pant: Street Pattern
Block System of Jaipur City, Rajastan, India, 3rd International Symposium on
Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture
for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25
Feb. 2000,'
Shuji Funo, Lanshiang Huan, Shu Yamane,
Naohiko Yamamoto, Mohan Pant: Building Types and Block Pattern of Jaipur City,
Rajastan, India, 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in
Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju
National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'
Shuji Funo, Naohiko Yamamoto, Mohan Pant:
Space Formation of Jaipur City, Rajastan, India-An Analysis on City Maps (1925-28)
Made by Survey of India, Journal of Asian Architecture and Building
Engineering, Vol.1 No.1 March 2002
[6]
Shuji
Funo, Shu Yamane, Norihisa Numata, Eiji Negami: Space Formation of the Street
Blocks within the Walled City of Ahmedabad (Gujarat, India), 3rd International
Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian
Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island,
Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'
Shuji Funo, Shu Yamane, Norihisa Numata,
Eiji Negami: Group Form of Urban Houses of Manek Chowk District (Ahmedabad,
Gujarat, India), 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in
Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju
National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'
[7]
Ayako Otsuji, Kiwamu
Yanagisawa, Shuji Funo: Spatial Formation of Madurai, India:-Compared with
Rajdhani Plan, Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Architectural
Interchange in Asia, AIJ, 25 May, “Global Environment and Diversity of Asian
Architecture”, June 1-4, 2004, Matsue, Japan.
[8]
Kiwamu
Yanagisawa, Shuji Funo: Spatial Formation of Varanasi, India- An Analysis of
the Urban Structure---Pilgrimage Roads, Mohalla as Community, Composition of
Block and Houses, Proceedings 4th International Symposium on Architectural
Interchange in Asia, “Resource Architecture and Modern Technology”, September
17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.
[9]
Mohan
Pant and Shuji Funo: The Grid and Modular Measures in the Town Planning of Mohenjo
daro and Katmandu Valley A Study on Modular Measures in Block and Plot
Divisions in the Planning of Mohenjo daro and Sirkap (Pakistan), and Thimi
(Katmandu Valley), Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering,
Vol.4 No.1, pp5159, May. 2005
[10]
Shuji
Funo, Yasushi Takeuchi, Mohan Pant: Considerations on the Distribution of Small
Ritual Facilities on the Public Space in Patan (Katmandu Valley, Nepal), 3rd
International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and
Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University,
Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'
[11]
Mohan
Pant, Shuji Funo: Ancestral Shrine and the Structure of Katmandu Valley
Towns-the Case of Thimi, 3rd International Symposium on Architectural
Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New
Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'
Mohan Pant, Shuji Funo: Dwelling Types of
the Town of Thimi, Katmandu Valley—An Analysis of Community Dwelling Clusters,
Proceedings 4th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, “Resource
Architecture and Modern Technology”, September 17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.
Mohan Pant, Shuji Funo: A Morphological
Analysis of Neighborhood Structure - Toles and the Ritual Artifacts of the Katmandu
Valley Towns – the Case of Thimi, ‘Special Issue The Wisdom of Asian Art and
Architecture’, “ MANUSIA” Journal of Humanities, No.3 2002
Mohan Pant, Shuji Funo: A Study on the
Pattern of Plot Division of Courtyard Residential Blocks of Patan, Katmandu
Valley, Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.3 No.1, pp197-1205,
May. 2004
[12]
] Shu
Yamane, Shuji Funo, Takashi Ikejiri: A Study on the Formation and the
Transformation of British Colonial Cities in India-Town Planning and its
Transformation after Independence in New Delhi, Proceedings 4th International
Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, “Resource Architecture and
Modern Technology”, September 17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.
Takashi Ikejiri, Masao Ando, Shuji Funo: An
Overview of Spatial Formation and Transformation of the “Black Towns” in India,
Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in
Asia, AIJ, 25 May, “Global Environment and Diversity of Asian Architecture”,
June 1-4, 2004, Matsue, Japan.
[13]
Shuji
Funo Bambang F. Ferianto, Kyouta Yamada: Considerations on Typology of Kampung
House and Betawi House of KAMPUNG_LUAR BATANG(JAKARTA), Journal of Asian
Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.4 No.1, pp129-136, May. 2005
[14]
Kyouta Yamada, Shuji Funo: Considerations on Block Formation and Residential
Typology in Fort Cochin (Kerala, India), Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium
on Architectural Interchange in Asia, AIJ, 25 May, “Global Environment and
Diversity of Asian Architecture”, June 1-4, 2004, Matsue, Japan.
[15]
KyotaYamada,
Shuji Funo: A Study on the Spatial Formation of Cochin, India-Case Study of
Dutch Colonial City in India, Proceedings 4th International Symposium on
Architectural Interchange in Asia, “Resource Architecture and Modern Technology”,
September 17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.
[16]
布野修司、近代世界システムと植民都市の形成---Modern World System and the Formation of Colonial City, 国際学術検討会「被殖民都市與建築」---International Symposium: Urban and Architectural Histories under
Colonial Rule in Asia, Taiwan, SINICA 6-7, Sep. 2000, 台湾中央研究院,2000年9月6-7日
布野修司：
植民都市の文化変容―土着と外来―都市住居の形成 殖民都市的文化轉化；本土與外來—以城市居住形式為中心論述—, 「第二回被殖民都市與建築—本土文化與殖民文化—」國際學術研討會、台湾中央研究院台湾史研究所,11月24日,民国93（2004）年
[17]
Yi Deng, Shuji Funo, Tsutomu Shigemura: A Study on the Block Formation and its
Subdivision into the Housing Lots in the Inner City of Beijing An Analysis of Qianlong
Jingcheng Quantu, Map of the Capital City of Qianlong Period (1750), Journal of
Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.1 No.2, pp209-217, Nov. 2002
[18]
Ming-chung Chuch,
Shuji Funo, Sadahiko Tanaka: Community Organization of the Village Settlement
and Service Area of Religious Centres: Si-Miao, in Konghinglie (Singdyam City,
Taiwan), Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.1 No.3,
pp191-198, May. 2003
[19]
Waterson, Roxana,”The
Living House: An Anthropology of Architecture in South-East Asia”,
[20]
P. Oliver (ed.) ：”Encyclopedia
of Vernacular Architecture of the World”,
Cambridge University Press, 1997
[21]
Janet L. Abu-Lughod,”Before European Hegemony: The World System
A.D.1250-1350”, Oxford University Press, 1989.
