開催テーマ・主旨、第2回ISAIAアジアの建築交流国際シンポジウム，神戸，1998年9月8ー10日

 第Ⅱ回　アジアの建築交流国際シンポジウム 開催趣旨

The 2nd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia

「２１世紀的亜州建築」

Asian Architecture in 21st Century

 

 

　２１世紀は「アジアの世紀」になると言われる。中国、インドという人口大国の存在もあり、世界人口の半数近くの人々がアジアに居住するという意味でも、また、これまで世界をリードしてきた西欧世界の近代化、産業化の流れに疑問符が打たれ、その限界が意識され出したという意味でも、アジアに大きな関心が寄せられる。地球環境問題が世界共通の課題になり、持続可能な社会、都市、建築のあり方が求められる中で、アジアに何かこれまでと違った原理が求められている。

　アジアはひとつ、ではない。アジアはもとより多様である。むしろ、異質のものが多様に共存する原理をアジアの各地域は伝統としてきたのではないか。建築と都市のあり方をめぐって、アジア各地の経験を報告しあい、議論したい。真摯な議論の中から、２１世紀の都市や建築についての指針を見出したい。

　１９８６年、日本建築学会は創立百周年を記念して「アジアの建築交流国際シンポジウム」を開催した。その後１０年を経て、ますます、アジアの各地域の相互交流は深まりつつあり、シンポジウムの持続的開催の必要性が強く意識されてきた。この度、日本建築学会の呼びかけで、中国建築学会、大韓建築学会の賛同を得、三学会共催のかたちで第Ⅱ回のシンポジウムを開催する運びとなった次第である。

　会場は神戸。１９９５年１月の阪神・淡路大震災は未曾有の被害をもたらした。その復興の過程を見ていただきたい。また、様々な問題点を議論していただきたい。第Ⅲ回は、北京、第Ⅳ回はソウル・・・というように、具体的な都市の問題を考えるかたちで続けられることを願う。

　メイン・テーマは「２１世紀のアジア建築」。安藤忠雄、ルシアンクロールの基調講演の他、６つの分科会を用意する。「建築史の誕生」「建築士制度と建築教育」「耐震と構造技術」「震災復興とまちづくり」「歴史的環境と保存」「伝統的建築技術と環境共生建築」をめぐって活発な議論が展開されることを期待したい。また、このシンポジウムを機会に交流の輪がさらに広がることを期待したい。

                               

The 2nd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia

                    「２１世紀的亜州建築」

              Asian Architecture in 21st Century

                                

 

 

　It is said that 21st century will be called "Century of Asia".Asian regions are expected to play a greater role to the worldwide issues because almost half of the world's population lives in Asian regions which include the large countries like China, India and Indonesia.... We are raising a question to the process of industrialization and modernization leaded by Western countries for these centuries and throwing eyes to the Asian fields that have their own values and principles. Global environmental issues are becoming a common tasks to solve all over the world and how the sustainable society, city and architecture will be realized is the major subject of common concern.

　Asia is not one. Asia has a variety of regions. Many countries in Asia advocate Unity in diversity as a national slogan. How we find the principles that coordinate the plural elements will be our major point to emphasize. We would like to discuss the future of Asian cities and architecture in 21st century and to find the direction which we follow.

　Architectural Institute of Japan held The 1st International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia in 1986. We reached to the recognition that we should continue to hold this kind of international exchange program as a result of our interchanges in several levels during this decade after 1st symposium. AIJ initiates the program that had be accepted by Architectural Institute of China and Korea very soon. This symposium will be held by three co-host organization.

  Kobe city has been selected as a venue for the symposium. Great Hanshin Earthquake was a miserable disaster. Please visit the site that are on the process of reconstruction and discuss the matter of issues. We still have the many problems to solve. We hope to hold the next symposium in Beijing or Seoul.

　Major subject of the symposium  is titled "Asian Architecture in 21st Century". We invite Tadao Ando and Lucien Kroll as keynote speakers. We have prepared 6 Sub theme. 「建築史の誕生」「建築士制度と建築教育」「耐震と構造技術」「震災復興とまちづくり」「歴史的環境と保存」「伝統的建築技術と環境共生建築」. We hope many participants will attend our symposium and play an important role to our inter exchange program.

Colonial Urban Heritage and Asian Urban Traditions， UrbanーCultural Research Center，Graduate School of Literature and Human Sciences， The 21st Century COE Program， International Symposium， Osaka City University， 1st Oct.， 2006：大阪市立大学大学院文学研究科，COE国際シンポジウム

 Colonial Urban Heritage and Asian Urban Traditions， UrbanーCultural Research Center，Graduate School of Literature and Human Sciences， The 21^st Century COE Program， International Symposium， Osaka City University， 1^st Oct.， 2006：大阪市立大学大学院文学研究科，COE国際シンポジウム

Colonial Urban Heritage and Asian Urban Traditions

 

Prof. Dr. Shuji Funo

Chairman of Architectural Planning Committee

Chairman of Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering (JAABE)

Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ)

Graduate School of Environmental Planning The University of Shiga Prefecture

2500 Hassaka-cho , Hikone City, Shiga Prefecture 〒522-8533

tel= +81-(0)749-28-8200（Rep）0749-28-8272 Lab. fax: 8342) e-mail　funo@ses.usp.ac.jp

 

Introduction

  I have been deeply involved in urban and architectural fields in Asia for more than a quarter of a century since 1978, when we started the research project on human settlements in Southeast Asia jointly with ITS (ITS Institute Teknologi Surabaya) research Group leaded by Prof. Johan Silas.

I firstly carried out the field survey on kampungs (urban villages)[1], that had decided major direction of my urban studies. The world of kampung I had encountered opened my eyes to the vast field of Asia. I am sure now that kampung is so interesting as a model of urban community to be developed to the neighborhood unit of a new town even in another regions[2]. I wrote my doctorate thesis titled "Studies on Transitional Process of Kampung and Kampung Housing System --Considerations on Alternative Strategies for Housing"(Tokyo University) in 1987[3], which is my first accomplishment and the base ever since.

  After finishing doctorate thesis, I was invited to participate in studies for Islamic city and happened to discover a unique Hindu city named Cakranegara in Lombok Island next to Bali Island, which leads me to next stage of my urban studies. To compare the Hindu city and Muslim city became one of the objectives of my research from that time. The fact that the formation of Muslim quarters are very different from that of Hindu quarters in Cakranegara leads us to enlarge the field. I wrote a paper[4] on Cakranegara in 2002.

Looking for the target city to be compared with Cakranegara, we thought of Jaipur[5], the capital of Rajasthan, India, famous as a gridiron city, which was constructed in the same early 18^th century by Jai Singh II. Two cities. one of which located at the western end, and the other at the eastern end of the Hindu civilization, were thought as two typical models, so we develop our research framework to Indian Subcontinent. We surveyed cities as Ahmedabad[6], Madurai[7], Varanasi,[8] Lahore, Delhi, Katmandu[9](Nepal), Patan[10](Nepal), Thimi[11](Nepal)…..

  I recently wrote a book titled “The City as Mandala; The Spatial Idea of Hindu City and its Transformation”(Japanese) in 2006 by picking up three cities, Madurai, Jaipur and Cakranegara and am preparing with Dr. M.M Pant to publish a book titled “Stupa & Swastika; A study on planning principles of Patan, Katmandu Valley”(English) in 2007.

  Next step had come with research project on colonial city funded by Ministry of Education and Science, Japan since 1997. We recognized the great western impact on city planning in Asia through studies on urban tissues for these years. For the first two years (1997-98), we concentrated on the British colonial cities like Munbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras), Kolkata (Calcutta)[12] in India. British have been leading modern planning method for all over the world since mid 19^th century, which is familiar with us because many text books referred the modern urban planning history. I turn our eyes to Dutch colonial cities in Asia, the reason for which Asia has many cities originated from the bases(lodges, factories, forts, castles) of Portuguese and Dutch colonial cities—especially, The Netherlands had been only country for Japanese to contact through Dezima during 1641-1986.

  The Netherlands colonized Indonesian Archipelago and established Batavia (Jakarta) as a headquarter of Dutch East India Company (VOC), which closely connected Dezima, Nagasaki, Japan to the Modern World system. We conducted field surveys on Jakarta, Malacca, Galle, Colombo, Cochin[13], Nagapattinam[14]…Cape Town and stretched our legs lastly to Dutch colonial cities in West Indies as Recife (Brazil), Paramaribo (Surinam), Willemstad (Curacao). In terms of colonial cities, we had chances twice to hold international symposia at SINICA, Taiwan[15]. In terms of cities in East Asia, I am making a study on Beijing[16], Taipei[17], and Korean cities till the moment with foreign students from Asia.

 Based on my experiences in Asian field for a quarter century, I would like to raise some topics related to the subject.

 

Ⅰ Kampung as a World

  Kampung is so interesting as a model of urban community as I mentioned above. Kampung in Indonesian(Malaysian) language literally means ‘village’. People use the word even in urban context. Kampungan means ‘country boy’ in the city. OED (Oxford English Dictionary) says the word ‘kumpung’ is the origin of the word ‘compound’ although another theory says that derives from the Portuguese ‘campo’. Hearing that the enclosed living quarter in Batavia and Malacca is called ‘kampung’ by the natives, Englishman began to use the word ‘compound=kampung’ in India in early 19^th century, thereafter also began to use the word in Africa.

Housing and urban issues are still big problems in Asian countries, especially in developing countries. I think we call the major issues to mind before discussing urban heritage. The existence of urban settlements like kampungs itself presents urban heritage, which is not the impedance to be swept away. Most of them are in poor condition physically, and economically but are not necessarily poor socially. It should be emphasized that urban settlement in the developing countries is not a slum, which shows different appearances from slums in Western cities. Destruction of social structure, bad and criminal acts etc. are not rarely seen in developing countries.

The characteristics of kampungs to be noticed are as follows. We can learn a lot from kampungs, which has own system. When we plan and design the city or urban settlement, we should respect the vernacular values urban settlement has maintained.

  (1) Variety of Kampungs

  Each kampung has its own characteristics which varies according to location (distance from the city center), constitution of income groups, migratory backgrounds of inhabitants or mobility of population, its history, its spatial pattern and so on. It's very important that distribution of various urban settlements give alternatives when people choose the place to live. Even the poorest income group can find some living quarters. Some scholar insists that variety of kampung is only a solution to the housing problems at the moment in developing regions.

 (2) Kampung as a Whole World

  Kampung is not a mere residential settlements. New town in Japan, for example, is often called Bed (Dormitory) Town because it has no other functions except sleeping (staying) especially for business man. But urban settlement in general has both functions of production and consumption. The cycle from production to consumption can be closed within the same kampung. Living place is very near to workplace. Almost all the daily activities can be carried out in the neighborhood unit. It must be pointed out that kampung itself are parasitic to the city center, which has various facilities for job opportunity. They cannot survive without earning money from outside the kampung. But urban settlement largely forms autonomous and self-contained community.

(3) Heterogeneity of Kampung

  Kampung forms plural society and is not a homogeneous community. Mix habitation, which means the situation various groups live together in a same area, is a characteristic of kampung. Rich people often live in next door to poor people. It should be noticed that rich people support the life of the poor even in the poorest kampungs.

 (4) Kampung as a Highly Serviced Society---Hawkers (peddlers)' culture

  Everybody can get almost all the kinds of foods and goods for daily life because street vendor and peddlers are always rambling to serve the inhabitants. It is because job opportunity is very scarce in the kampung. But for the inhabitants, kampung is a highly serviced society.

 (5) Mutual Aid System

  Kampung communities is usually well organized. The inhabitants help themselves through the mutual aid activities, which is indispensable in the kampung life. The spirit of mutual aid characterizes kampung community.

(6) Preservation of Traditional Culture

  People tend to preserve the traditional way of life in the rural village from where he comes. Kampung should be considered to be a settlement that has own vernacular values.

 (7) Housing as a Process

   Housing is a process. Kampungs are generated by accumulating infinite housing process of various inhabitants. In urban (Regional) planning or housing project, we should accept the gradual process of addition of the individual house.

 (8) Complicated Ownership Relations

  It is one of the major characteristics that ownership relations are complicated. It seems behind from the modern world, but complicated land ownership relations sometimes resist the speculation.

T.G. McGee use the term ‘Urban Involution’ following C. Geertz’s ‘Agricultural Involution’, which is very suggestive in discussing the future of urban community. Every city has spatial limits in size and cannot expand infinitely because of various reasons, among which ecological one is crucial. How to utilize the limited urban resources is common subject of every city. Involution, that is, evolution inward instead of extension and expansion outward seems important. Enriching and beautifying the city inside is needed besides developing the outer city. The lives in kampungs are maintained by principle of shared poverty by C. Geertz. Kampung people can survive by sharing the limited resources, proceeded our work-sharing system.

  Kampung Improvement program(KIP), which I have to neglect here, is famous as an urban strategy.

 

Ⅱ Historical Urban Resources as Mutual Heritage

Most of the big cities in Asia are becoming similar and similar because buildings are built by using the same materials and same construction techniques based on Industrialization. Modernization or Westernization influenced all the aspects of our daily lives and modified the structure of our cities. Looking at old urban cores in Asian cities, we recognize how we accept the European civilization and culture. However, buildings that formed the core of old town in Asian countries are being replaced by high-rise buildings. Even modern architecture built 50 years ago is hanging by a thread. How to preserve, conserve and revitalize the old core of the cities is becoming common subject in Asian cities.

We are very familiar with world history after Cristobal Colon ‘discovered’ ‘New World’ in 1492. European countries headed by Portuguese and Spain had started up activities overseas competitively. The ‘New World’ was divided into two by Tordesillas treatment in 1494, which decided the western part belonged to Spain and the eastern part belonged to Portuguese. Portuguese utilized eth existing native networks of cities in Asia though Spain planted many colonial cities newly based on laws of Indies in Latin America. After Portuguese established cities like, The Dutch attacked and deprived almost all the Portuguese outposts except Goa, Macao and so on. According to I. Wallerstein’s ‘Theory of World System’, it was the Dutch who had firstly grasped hegemony of Modern World System in 16^th –17^th century which is called ‘Century of Netherlands’, in advance of England. The Dutch constructed Batavia(Jakarta) in the same period when Edo(Tokyo) had been constructed and being developed. However the Dutch handed her Asian colonial ouutposts and cities over England in the end of 18^th century, except the cities in Indonesia.

The age of Imperialism had come with England and France, which modified the port cities built by Portugues and the Netherlands and planted cities inland, especially in India.

The Metropolises like Kolkata, Chennnai, Munbai, New Delhi and cities in straits colony were built by the British Empire.

As a results of the long history of European expansion in Asia as mentioned briefly above, the great amount of colonial urban heritages are left in Asia.

In case of many cities whose origins are traced back to the colonial period, the problem is a little bit complicated because reconstruction or preservation of colonial monuments built by European recalls the memory of domination and exploitation. It is natural for Indonesian people to oppose the proposal of reconstruction of Batavia castle by the Netherlands.

  But we have a case in Sri Lanka who launches the concept of mutual heritage and dual parentage. European culture has already penetrated into most of the regions in South and Southeast Asia sometimes deeply or partially. Sri Lanka is willingly to propose, for example, Galle Fort built by Dutch is registered as a world heritage site.

  However we have another serious case in East Asia. Old Korean National Museum (the former Japanese Colonial Office (Chosen Sotokuhu) building) was destructed in 1995, for the 50^th anniversary of liberation, which I believe is political correctness. On the other hand, the former Japanese Colonial Office in Taipei (Taiwan Sotokuhu) is still being used as home of presidents. It depends the case, which way people chose.

  Anyway, the periods of scrap and build have gone. How to reuse and convert the architectural stocks are important issues for the revitalization of the old urban core in Asian cities. We have many good examples in Korea.

 

Ⅲ Asian Urban Traditions

Western ideas, methods and techniques related architecture, building construction, and urban planning have been influential to Japan since Meiji Restoration until now.

The dichotomy of the west and the east, or Europe vs. Asia continues to dominate our brain and frame of references.

It is our task to discover indigenous principles of architectural techniques and planning methods and to clarify the relationship between regions. I wrote two text books, one is “A History of Asian Cities and Architecture”, which is now on the process of translation both in China and Korea and the other is “The Houses across the World”. I think a plenty of works to stimulate our curiosity in Asian fields are left.

How to define geographical range of Asia and how to differentiate the periods in history is the first issue to discuss. We indeed need a global view of architectural history.

I suppose the world of vernacular architecture as a base in each region. From the north to the south and from the east and west, Eurasia is consisted of various districts from the ecological view point. And Asia has 3 regional cores of urban civilizations, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Indus and Huang He, the influence of which extended all over Asia. Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism that rose and spread in Asia created the architectural tradition of building types needed. Chinese tradition of architecture and city planning is also very influential especially in East and Southeast Asia. If we see the architectural tradition in Southeast Asia, several layers of influences, which are Indianization, Sinicization, Islamication, Westernization, and Modernization, are differentiated in even one city.

What we should clarify is not one urban system but various streams of architectural traditions in Asia.

If we look at the tradition of cities in Asia, several stories are needed to be discussed. Asia is roughly divided into two areas in terms of interrelations with urban form and cosmologies. Asia has two cores, which established the idea of city, India and China. Both had strong influences to their peripheral regions. Hindu idea of City, which had been written in “Arthasastra” or “Vastusastra”s like “Manasara” and “Mayamata”, was transmitted to Southeast Asian regions like Angkor, Myanmar, Thailand, Jawa, and Cakranegara. Ancient Chinese Idea of capital city, which had been described in “周礼”考工記 and implemented later in the form of Beijing, are transmitted to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. However, in western part of Eurasia where is now mostly Islam regions, we cannot find interrelations between the form of the city and cosmology in the regions. We have to clarify the various urban traditions in Asia.

Urban tissues in Asian cities at present are also investigated carefully to propose the future of the city.

 

Ⅳ Urban System based on the Ecological Balance in the Region

 We have a chance to build so called Surabaya Eco house, which aims at developing the model of collective housing in South East Asia (Humid Tropical Regions). This experimental project firstly launch the basic plan based on our previous studies on kampungs. Our proposal was luckily accepted as a project by IDI (International Foundation Development of Infrastructure), and the model house was built at Surabaya (ITS campus, Indonesia) in June 1998. We have done to monitor the environmental conditions of Eco-cycle House. We are thinking to try the experiment based on the analysis and to push out our model to be socialized in the near future.

The basic techniques and methods are as follows

A. Skeleton-Infill Structural Method

  We have designed a building’s skeleton of long-durable concrete structure, and partitions and exterior walls (Infill) of flexible structure to accommodate dwellers needs, allowing them to participate (Do-it-Yourself).

B.     Planning Adequate to Local Life Style

  Local life style has been given priority by enlarging sections for common use in collective houses, with broader free and common space arrangements. Private sections have been made more independent space.

C.    Passive Cooling Technology

①Double Roofing

To effectively break sunlight heat, the roof has been designed as double-layered-roof with heat-insulating and air layers. The heat-insulating material has been developed of local products, coconut fiber. The air layer is placed the outer-side of heat-insulator intending quick spontaneous discharge of sunlight heat.

②Windows and Outer Walls for Insulating Sunlight Heat

A bigger roof and deeper eaves have been built to cut the sunlight, and a wooden-side walls system not to absorb sunlight heat.

③Commonly Shared Open Space Arrangements, Ventilation and Natural Lighting

The commonly shared free and open air space has been utilized to secure horizontal and vertical ventilation channels. Windows have been installed on the top roof to facilitate ventilation and heat discharge, and to get natural lighting. And a 3-story high void space has been built at the center of the building.

④Ventilation Channels in Private Sections

To facilitate cross ventilation in private sections, an arrangement of openings and operating system have been designed. Two openings have been installed on the outer wall, and a vent window onto commonly shared open space. The operating system has been designed to allow ventilation not only during daytime but also at night.

⑤Cold Storage by Night Ventilation

Concrete floor slab with big thermal capacity is utilized as a cooling system. Cool air is led into rooms by the night ventilation to store the coolness in the concrete floor. This provides a coolant for the next daytime.

⑥Radiant Cooling System by Circulating Water

  A polypropylene pipe is buried in the concrete slab floor to circulate well water for radiant cooling effect. The well water is kept in underground tank beneath the ground floor and is circulated by a solar-photovoltaic driven pump. The circulated water is reused for flushing toilets or sprinkling.

  After completion of the building, the thermal conditions have been monitored to verify the passive cooling effect. The effects of ventilating layers and heat-insulation materials are quite remarkable. The coconut fiber’s heat resistance can be estimated, and it has been proved to have good heat properties as insulation materials. The concrete floor slab was cooled down by massive ventilation at night when temperature goes down, to determine the effects of cold storage. The daytime temperatures are about 2 degrees lower than the case without any night ventilation. The floor slab surface has a promising cooling radiation. Circulating-water radiant cooling effects fluctuate according to the water temperatures. The lower the water temperature the better the effect, but even at 28 degrees is sufficient the radiant cooling effect.

　My experience above is so limited and has many problems to be discussed, and how to enlarge this kind of  Eco-cycled System to urban scale is important. Urban systems based on ecological balance in the regions are needed all over the world..

 

---

[1] Shuji Funo: Dominant Issues of Three Typical Kampungs and Evaluation of KIP, Peran Perbaikan Kampung dalam Pembangunan Kota, KOTAMADJA SURABAYA ITS, 1985

[2] Shuji Funo, Naohiko Yamamoto, Johan Silas: Typology of Kampung Houses and their Transformation Process A Study on Urban Tissues of Indonesian Cities, Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.1 No.2, pp193-200, Nov. 2002

[3] AIJ Best Paper Award in 1991

[4] Shuji Funo: The Spatial Formation in Cakranegara, Lombok, in Peter J.M. Nas (ed.):Indonesian town revisited, Muenster/Berlin, LitVerlag, 2002

[5] Shuji Funo, Lanshiang Huan, Shu Yamane, Naohiko Yamamoto, Mohan Pant: Street Pattern Block System of Jaipur City, Rajastan, India, 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'

Shuji Funo, Lanshiang Huan, Shu Yamane, Naohiko Yamamoto, Mohan Pant: Building Types and Block Pattern of Jaipur City, Rajastan, India, 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'

Shuji Funo, Naohiko Yamamoto, Mohan Pant: Space Formation of Jaipur City, Rajastan, India-An Analysis on City Maps (1925-28) Made by Survey of India, Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.1 No.1 March 2002

[6] Shuji Funo, Shu Yamane, Norihisa Numata, Eiji Negami: Space Formation of the Street Blocks within the Walled City of Ahmedabad (Gujarat, India), 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'

Shuji Funo, Shu Yamane, Norihisa Numata, Eiji Negami: Group Form of Urban Houses of Manek Chowk District (Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India), 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'

[7] Ayako Otsuji, Kiwamu Yanagisawa, Shuji Funo: Spatial Formation of Madurai, India:-Compared with Rajdhani Plan, Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, AIJ, 25 May, “Global Environment and Diversity of Asian Architecture”, June 1-4, 2004, Matsue, Japan.

[8] Kiwamu Yanagisawa, Shuji Funo: Spatial Formation of Varanasi, India- An Analysis of the Urban Structure---Pilgrimage Roads, Mohalla as Community, Composition of Block and Houses, Proceedings 4th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, “Resource Architecture and Modern Technology”, September 17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.

[9] Mohan Pant and Shuji Funo: The Grid and Modular Measures in the Town Planning of Mohenjo daro and Katmandu Valley A Study on Modular Measures in Block and Plot Divisions in the Planning of Mohenjo daro and Sirkap (Pakistan), and Thimi (Katmandu Valley), Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.4 No.1, pp5159, May. 2005

[10] Shuji Funo, Yasushi Takeuchi, Mohan Pant: Considerations on the Distribution of Small Ritual Facilities on the Public Space in Patan (Katmandu Valley, Nepal), 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'

[11] Mohan Pant, Shuji Funo: Ancestral Shrine and the Structure of Katmandu Valley Towns-the Case of Thimi, 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'

Mohan Pant, Shuji Funo: Dwelling Types of the Town of Thimi, Katmandu Valley—An Analysis of Community Dwelling Clusters, Proceedings 4th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, “Resource Architecture and Modern Technology”, September 17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.

Mohan Pant, Shuji Funo: A Morphological Analysis of Neighborhood Structure - Toles and the Ritual Artifacts of the Katmandu Valley Towns – the Case of Thimi, ‘Special Issue The Wisdom of Asian Art and Architecture’, “ MANUSIA” Journal of Humanities, No.3 2002

Mohan Pant, Shuji Funo: A Study on the Pattern of Plot Division of Courtyard Residential Blocks of Patan, Katmandu Valley, Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.3 No.1, pp197-1205, May. 2004

[12] ] Shu Yamane, Shuji Funo, Takashi Ikejiri: A Study on the Formation and the Transformation of British Colonial Cities in India-Town Planning and its Transformation after Independence in New Delhi, Proceedings 4th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, “Resource Architecture and Modern Technology”, September 17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.

Takashi Ikejiri, Masao Ando, Shuji Funo: An Overview of Spatial Formation and Transformation of the “Black Towns” in India, Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, AIJ, 25 May, “Global Environment and Diversity of Asian Architecture”, June 1-4, 2004, Matsue, Japan.

[13] Kyouta Yamada, Shuji Funo: Considerations on Block Formation and Residential
Typology in Fort Cochin (Kerala, India), Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, AIJ, 25 May, “Global Environment and Diversity of Asian Architecture”, June 1-4, 2004, Matsue, Japan.

[14] KyotaYamada, Shuji Funo: A Study on the Spatial Formation of Cochin, India-Case Study of Dutch Colonial City in India, Proceedings 4th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, “Resource Architecture and Modern Technology”, September 17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.

[15] 布野修司、近代世界システムと植民都市の形成---Modern　World　System　and　the Formation of Colonial City, 国際学術検討会「被殖民都市與建築」---International Symposium: Urban and Architectural Histories under Colonial Rule in Asia, Taiwan, SINICA 6-7, Sep. 2000, 台湾中央研究院,2000年9月6-7日

布野修司： 植民都市の文化変容―土着と外来―都市住居の形成 殖民都市的文化轉化；本土與外來—以城市居住形式為中心論述—, 「第二回被殖民都市與建築—本土文化與殖民文化—」國際學術研討會、台湾中央研究院台湾史研究所,11月24日,民国93（2004）年

[16] Yi Deng, Shuji Funo, Tsutomu Shigemura: A Study on the Block Formation and its Subdivision into the Housing Lots in the Inner City of Beijing An Analysis of Qianlong Jingcheng Quantu, Map of the Capital City of Qianlong Period (1750), Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.1 No.2, pp209-217, Nov. 2002

[17] Ming-chung Chuch, Shuji Funo, Sadahiko Tanaka: Community Organization of the Village Settlement and Service Area of Religious Centres: Si-Miao, in Konghinglie (Singdyam City, Taiwan), Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.1 No.3, pp191-198, May. 2003

Shuji Funo：Toーjou(Capital Town) and The Grid in Asia， Nagoya International Urban Design forum(名古屋世界都市景観会議) 1977， Nagoya， 7~9，Nov. 1997

 Shuji Funo：Toーjou(Capital Town) and The Grid in Asia， Nagoya International Urban Design forum(名古屋世界都市景観会議) 1977， Nagoya， 7~9，Nov. 1997

 

"To-jou"(Capital Town) and  The Grid in Asia

Dr. Shuji Funo

School of Architecture and Environmental Design

Kyoto University

 

 Introduction

　We can see the gridiron town planning all over the world,  past and present, in the East and the West. Many cities of the Greek and Roman world are based on an extremely regular plan derived from a regular grid of streets. But  there are areas that have no tradition of the gridiron. town planning. Generally speaking, Islam world has not such a tradition. The grid patterns in Asia are not only based on the orthogonal geometry. The whole form of the town is usually thought to be related to the specific in the region. S. Kostof  classifies the ancient cities in China, Korean peninsula and Japan as not "the grid" pattern but as "the diagram" pattern  in his well known book "The city shaped". This essay discusses the tradition of the grid plan in Asia, focusing on 'To-jou'(Capital Town).

　

１　The idea of To-jou in Asia

　The word 'To-jou' means city that is surrounded by city wall and is used to the ancient capital city in China, Korea and Japan. "To" means the capital and "Jou" means the castle in Japanese .I would like to define the word "To-jou" as follows , not limiting the Eastern Asia.

  That is, "To-jou" is the supreme city(capital city) as "To" and "Jou".

　"To" is the place where the king(the power) does the political and ceremonial affairs under the name of the dynasty. "Jou" is the place that military authority are situated in. The City wall or  moat symbolize the military power of "To".  The Japanese ancient "To-jou"s which  had not the wall are exceptions. The supreme city that is called "To-jou" is not only the primate city that ha biggest population in the state, but also the place of the power. The political, ceremonial, miritarｙl  affairs are based on the cosmology that is closely connected to the power in pre-modern ages. The form of "To-jou" as "Jou" of "To" was the expression of the complex of "power and cosmology".

　We can point out the following facts in terms of "To-jou"s in Asia.

　1. There are two areas in Asia in relation to power-cosmology complex. one is the area in which cosmology and philosophy that give the grounds and legitimacy of the dynasty reflects the directly concrete layout of the city. The other is the area in which we cannot necessarily find distinct relation between city form and cosmology.

  2. There are two cases, one case where the transcendental model of the ideal city exists and the real city form is considered as a metaphor of the model , the other where the real functional logic dominates the formation of the city. Eve in the former case, it is very rare that the idea is realized completely. The relation between ideal types and the city structure changes age by age.

  3. The ideal form of the city tends to be realized in the periphery of the urban civilization rather than its center(the origin).

　If we divide the world(A) that has the idea of "To-jou" as  the representation of its own cosmology and the world(B) that has no idea of "To-jou",  China and India belong to the world(A) and the Islam world belongs to the world(B). The boundary between (A) and (B) exists the line that connects Indian sub-continent, Tarim Basin and the Mongol plain. The Forestry Zone in Asia belong to the world(A) excepting the cool Temperate Zones.

　The ideas of "To-jou" which originate in China and India had prevailed and been accepted in their surrounding areas. The world(A) are divided into two parts, the center core(A1) that formed the idea and  the periphery(A2) that received it. The world(A1) and the world(A2) are formed in the vicinity of the two centers, central china and central India. Korea,  Japan and Vietnam are the areas that accepted the idea of ancient China. Southeast  Asia, not including north Vietnam is the area that accepted the idea of ancient India.

　

２　"To-jou"s  in China and India

 

  ２－１　"To-jou"s in China

　There is a book "Shu-rai" that described the ideal city of "To-jou" in China. The basic principles are written as 'rectangular form', '3 gates in each side', 'the palace in the center', ''3 streets X 3 streets', 'the left is the place for ancestor and the right is the place for the Genius-loci', 'the front is palace and the rear is market' and so on. But,  there is  no example that realize the ideal form written in "Shu-rai".  Beijing(Daito the capital of Gen) looks similar to the "Shu-rai" model. It is interesting that the power not derived from Han dynasty follow the ideal form of Han tradition as the grounds of legitimacy.

　Great transformation occurred to "Chou an" in the ages from pre-Han dynasty to post-Han dynasty. The Palace of "Chou an" of pre-Han dynasty consisted of two parts, "Jou"(castle) in the southwest and " Kaku"(palace) in the northeast. The Emperor lived in "Mioukyu" in the southeast and receiｖｅｄ the subjects facing to the east(Sitting in the West  Looking to the East). This layout and orientation in the palace is said to be based on the same rule in the common house where the family head occupied the southwest corner. "Jou" and "Kaku" that make up "To-jou" are separated in "Chou an" of pre-Han dynasty. We cannot see the main axis of the city yet.

　The form of "To-jou" changed as the transcendent power of emperor were gradually established from pre-Han to post-Han dynasty, The form of ceremony in the palace changed from Sitting in the West and looking to the East to Sitting in the North and looking to the South. As the results, Palace moved to the north side of "To-jou". The central avenue("Suzaku") were constructed from the palace to the south as a central axis. This newly established form of the city influenced Japanese ancient "To-jou".

 

  ２－２　"To-jou"s in India

　India has "Arthasastra" which describes the idea of the city. There are no ruins that reflects the ideal model of the city also in India. Ayodiya, the capital of Cosara kingdom, which is described in "Ramayana" seem isotype of the ideal model, so we can guess and confirm the idea of "To-jou" must have been existed in ancient India. Prof. T. Ohji reconstructed the ideal plan of "To-jou" in India better than other scholars.

　Jaipur is the good examples that realized the ideal model of "To-jou" though it was constructed by Jai Shin II in early 18th century. We have the theory that the form of Jaipur is based on "Prastara" which "Manasara" describes(F.B.Havell, B.B. Dutt). But, the numbers of gates and blocks(Chowkri) are different from the "Prastara" model(A. K. Roy). The system dividing the blocks is generally said to be nine square (3x3) system or 9x9 system of "Pursha Mandala". The problem is the trust southeast part called Topkhanahazri. Nine square is incomplete. The explanation is that in place of northwest block, the trust southeast block was constructed.

  The fact that the axis is declining 15°(crock wise) is being discussed.. Some scholars insist the swamps in the northwest and the slope of the land are the reasons(A. K. Roy). The other says that Jai Shin II declined the axis of major street to the direction of his constellation Leo(S. A. Nilson). Furthermore, it is said that the decline of the axis is to consider the path of window and to make shadows.(N. . Rajbanshi）。 There is a scholar who insists that the grid pattern of European Cities influenced the form of Jaipur on the grounds that a book of maps including many grid plans by Johan Baptista Homan had been published in Nu:runburg in 1726.(Aman Nas）。

  Though the ideal model are not realized in the real form of Jaipur, it is sure that Jaipur was constructed based on the idea of the Hindu city judging from the facts that Jai Shin II used "Prastara" pattern as the pattern of division of chowkri and laid Brahmapuri(Brahman quater) in the north parts of the city.

　

３　Acceptance of the Idea of "To-jou"

 

　３－１　"To-jou"s  in Japan

　The first "To-jou" is Fuziwara-kyo. The prototype is considered to be Chou an in Zui-Toh dynasty. But it is pre(pusued) "To-jou" that has only palace in the center. What is interesting is that Fuziwara^kyo already has the main north-south axis. The idea of "To-jou" in China were introduced into Japan very soon. As the Yamato-dynasty got the power more and more, the "To-jou" was established. The Hei-jou-kyo(Nara) is the establishment of Japanese "To-jou". The methods of urban planning differs during the transitional process from Hei-jou-kyo, Nagaoka-kyo  to Heian-kyo(Kyoto)

　The width of streets are the same .North-south major avenue is called "Suzaku-Ohji" and East-west avenue is  called "Nijou-Ohji". Except these inter crossing two major avenue, ohjis(large streets) and kohji(small streets) are running　like a gridiron. But the block dividing systems called "Jo-bo-sei" are different in three cities. "Sin-sin" system of measurement is used in  Fuziwara-kyo and Hei-jou-kyo.  On the other hand, "Utinori" measuring system is used in Heian-kyo. The size of the land differs in Fuziwara-kyo and Heijou-kyo according to the width of the street the compound is connected to but the block is divided as the size of the land unit will be the same in Heian-kyo. In case of Nagaoka-kyo, "Utinori" system is adopted in the area surrounds palace and "Sinsin" system is still used in other parts. The land division system called "Henusi"  system was newly introduced in Nagaoka-kyo partly.

　The idea of Japanese "To-jou" was completed in the planning of Heian-kyo but the whole formation was not complete in the beginning. When Heian-kyo became the permanent capital(around 810), "Sa-kyo"(left side of the city) had been developed more than the other parts. In the middle age, Kamakura era, Kyoto were consisted of precinct of temples and "Tyou"(town). Kyoto and Kamakura were double capitals during the era. After the civil war called Ohnin-no-ran the dual structure of the upper town(Kamigyo) and the down town(Simogyou) were planned into the integrated one. During Toyotomi age, the structure of the city was changed to be the castle town. Hideyosi reformed the block system and built city wall called "Odoi". The ancient grid plan based on "Jobo-sei" system was changed and variously occupid age by age.

　

　３－２　"To-jou"s in South East Asia

　We have not much information of "To-jou"s in South East Asia. Especially, we are not familiar with the block systems. But it is obvious that the regions accepted the idea of "To-jou" in India. The forms of Angkor Tom, Sukothai and Ayutayaseem to reflect the idea of the city in India.

　Angkor Tom is said to follow the Dandaka type "Mayamata" among "Silpasastra" describes and the idea of the city "Arthasastra" explains at the same time because the center is the sacrad area and palace is locatede in the north..

  The reconstruction plan of Sukothai shows both the palace and the temple  are located in the center. The form symbolize that the power of dynasty catch up the religiouspower. In Ayutaya period, The great axis runs from the front of palace to the East and Big temples are built on both sides of the central axis. That is the same pattern of Chou an in Zui-Toh dynasty.

 

４　Cakranegara  a Unique Hindu City in Lombok (Indonesia)

  Cakranegara is a very unique city that is based on grid plan. I will describe here the formation of Cakranegara and guess the idea in the beginning. Cakranegara was built as a colonial city of Karangasem Kingdom in Bali. What influences we can identify from the form of Cakranegara?

 

　４－１　Streets system and land division

　The streets in Cakranegara are divided into three categories. Theses are called marga sanga, marga dasa, marga. Marga in Sanskrit means street and neighborhood unit in India. Sanga means 9 as we guess Nawa  Sanga that is 8 cardinal points plus center and dasa means 10 in Bali. Marga sangas are the broadest streets that cross at the city center The street JL. SLI Hasanudin runs from south to north, the street JL.Selaparang from east to west accurately. The second level road marga dasas divide the block and marga divide the block into housing sites. We look for the place at which old walls are preserved area and surveyed the width of the streets and the sizes of pekarangan(house compounds).

 The average length (east-west) of pekarangans surveyed is 26.05,　the　maximum 30.44m, minimum 25.08m. The average length(north-south) of the pekarangan compounds surveyed is 24.53m, the maximum 26.84m, minimum 21.55m.　The average area of the unit is about 624m2(26m×24m).

  According to the former teacher, Mr.Lala Lukman, the size of pekarangan planed is 25mx25m.　The unit Of measure ‘tomba’had been used that is the length of spear around 2.5m.　The planned length of unit is 10 tomba. Mr.Ide Bagus Alit, an elder (Pengusap) in Cakranegara,says the area of 1 pekaranganis 8 ‘are’ (800m2) and square. There is another information by Mr.P.Jelantic that the size of pekarangan is 6   ‘are’(600m2). On the basis of our survey, We consider that the　sis of pekarangan was roughly planed by a unit of 25mx25m(10tombax10tomba)though 26mx24.5m is　the average.

  As for the width of the streets, we included the width of ‘tagtagan’that is the plant space adjacent to both sides of the streets. According to the informants above, there is plant space called tagtagan that belongs to the king between tembok(brick) wall and the edge of the road. The width of tagtagan was about 5m,but was made narrower because the Chinese had bought it for commercial place during 1867-8. Tagtagan space had many functions.People used the space for upacara (festivals) because the king prohibited uupacara within the pekarangan.People planted trees like coconut, sugar palm, etc.; since adat (the traditional common law )had permitted the personal use.

  Now, almost all the tagtagan space along the marga sanga is used for shops managed by Chinese and those along marga dasa and margas are involved into pekarangan in many cases. Our survey says that the width of marga sanga(east-west) is 36.52m, marga sanga(north-south), 44.05m. The average width of marga dasa is 17.14m; the most frequent figure is 18m that we guess is the planed number. The average width of marga is 7.75(about 8m).The widths of tagtagans are 11.63(marga sanga) and4.6(maarga dasa).

  We conclude from data above that the size of block is 250mx250m(100tombax100tomba:square).The length(east-west) is 250m(pekarangan 26mx8=208m＋marga 8mx3=232m＋marga dasa 9mx2=250m).The length(north-south) is 250m(25mx10).

 

 ４－２　The Organization of Neighborhood Unit - karang

  The block surrounded by marga dasa seems to have had been a neighborhood unit from the view of physical urban planning. The community unit called karang is still base on the streets system though there are very few examples that one block corresponds to one karang. The elder(informant) says the neighborhood unit that is also called marga is consisted of 10x2 household units along marga. Two margas are unified to 1 kriang that means the head of banjar(community) in Bali. And 2 kriangs are unified to 1 karang that is, karang is consisted of 80 household units that occupy one block.

  Karang corresponds to RW (rukun warga) as today's unit of administrative organizations that is consisted of several RTs (rukun tetangas).Hindus in Bali use the term banjar in place of the term karang. Balinese in Cakranegara use the term banjar for community unit and the term karang for the unit of land. Karang is the unit of groups originated from the same native land.

 

　４－３　Puras and Karangs

  The informant who is managing and maintaining the facilities of Pura Meru teaches us the following important fact. people from the same village in Bali had lived in the same karang . And there were 33 karangs in the beginning of the construction of Cakranegara each of which had each pura and chief.

  We can find over 33 karangs now in Cakranegara and each karang has not necessarily one pura. The central biggest and impressive Hindu temple Pura Meru is next to Pura Mayura and along JL.Selaparang(marga sanga).Pura Meru dedicated to Brahmana, Vishnu and Siva, was built in1720 by the king of Karangasem, Agung Made Ngurah, to unite the all Balinese small kingdoms in Lombok. The site surrounded by tall brick wall is divided into three parts, Bhur(the earth), Bwah(the human world), Swah(the heaven), from west to east. That composition symbolizes the structure of space that is also divided into three parts. There are candi bentar (entrance); a watch tower called Bale Kulkul at the east corner; a holy tree beringin trees are at both sides of an approach in Bwah, the center. There are many buildings including three towers in Swah, the deepest sanctuary; the most important quarter located in the East. The tower dedicated to Siva at the center  has 11 roofs. The major structure of the tower is made of Nunka; Jackwood curved and thatched by alang-alang. The tower dedicated to Vishnu at the North has 9 roofs And the tower dedicated to Brahmana at the South  has 7 roofs. The latter two are thatched by roof -tiles. Enclosing three towers there stand 33 small shrines (14 on the north side, 16 on the East(back)side, 3 in front of towers). The name of each small shrine is derived from the name of karang that has been maintaining the building.

  We cannot find all the karangs that is listed on the name plate of the 33 small shrines in Pura Meru. We barely identified 27 Puras and Karangs. Some karangs had disappeared. We discovered one pura at the city ,Kederi that is located at the South of Cakranegara.Themajor part of Cakaranegara had been largely demolished once by Dutch. Therefore, it is very difficult to reconstruct the original form. We can consider that the distributions of Puras show the original area of the city. If the karangs  outside the central grid that are maintaining small shrines at pura Meru did not move, we have to recognize there should have existed Balinese quarter outside the grid area. Which is interesting is the area called Pura Anggan Telu in the south that area had been planned in the beginning of the foundation. There are Pura Jero at the North, Pura Seraya and Pura Sweta at the East. The areas stuck out at the north and south part of the city are thought to have had been planned from the beginning.

  The number of 33 that we often find in South East Asia, is a special number in the context of  the Buddhism and Hinduism. People believe 33 gods live in Mt. Meru. There are paradises in the slope of Mt.Meru and in the second paradise 33 gods are living The number of governmental officers and offices were limited to 33. Pura Mayura has 33 fountains. The southern part of Cakranegera is consisted of 32(4x4x2)block. If we add the palace block,  total number of blocks becomes 33. We consider that the original concept of the city planning involves the whole area should be consisted of 33 karangs, community unit.

 

アジアの都城とグリッド

布野修司

京都大学大学院工学研究科

生活空間学専攻

 

はじめに

　グリッド・パターンの都市形態は古今東西至る所でみることができる。アジア地域も例外ではない。しかし、地域によってグリッド・パターンの伝統がみられない地域がある。イスラーム圏にはグリッド状の街区パターンは一般的にはない。また、アジアのグリッド・パターンは、必ずしも均質なパターンの繰り返しではない。グリッドの全体形態は独特の宇宙観と結びつけられる。Ｓ．コストフは、中国や韓国・朝鮮半島、日本などの古代都市を「グリッド」パターンの都市としてではなく「ダイアグラムとしての都市」として扱っている。本稿では、グリッドの定義を広く「直交座標軸による街区割り」と理解し、アジアの「都城」に焦点を当てながら、アジアのグリッド・パターンをみてみたい。

　

１　都城思想とアジア

　「都城」という言葉は、「周囲に城壁を巡らした都市」のことであり、一般に中国、朝鮮、日本の古代の宮都について用いられる。しかし、東アジアに限定せず「都城」を以下のように定義したい。

　すなわち、「都城」とは「都の城としての至高の都市」である。

　「都」は、王権が国家の名のもとにおこなう政事、祭事の場である。「城」は「都」の軍事に関わる側面をいい、周囲を市壁に囲われない日本の「都城」もあるが、一般に市壁、周濠などによって象徴される。「至高の都市」とは単に人口が最大の都市というだけでなく、王権の所在地である。政事、祭事、軍事は前近代には王権と結びつくコスモロジーに裏付けられていた。「都」の「城」としての「都城」は「王権ーコスモロジー」複合の表現であった。

　以上のような「都城」をアジアについて見ると以下のような興味深い事実を指摘できる。

　第一、王権を根拠づける思想、コスモロジーが具体的な都市のプランに極めて明快に投影されるケースとそうでないケースがある。

　第二に、都市の理念型として超越的なモデルが存在し、そのメタファーとして現実の都市形態が考えられる場合と、実践的、機能的な論理が支配的な場合がある。前者の場合も理念型がそのまま実現する場合は少ない。また、都市構造と理念型との関係は時代とともに変化していく。

　第三に、都城の形態を規定する思想や理念は、その文明の中心より、周辺地域において、より理念的、理想的に具体化され表現される傾向が強い。

　コスモロジーの表象としての都城思想をもつ世界（Ａ）ともたない世界（Ｂ）を分けると、中国とインドがA、イスラーム世界がＢに属する。ＡとＢの境界は、ほぼインド亜大陸ータリム盆地ーーモンゴルの各西限を結ぶ線にある。アジアの森林地帯は、冷温帯を除いて、すべてＡにおさまる。

　中国とインドで成立した都城思想は、その周辺地帯へ広がり、受容される。世界Ａは、「都城思想の形成核」（Ａ１）と「都城思想の受容地帯」（Ａ２）に分化する。Ａ１とＡ２は、中国中原とその周縁地帯、インド中原とその周縁地帯というふたつのヴェクトル場によって成立する。朝鮮・日本・ヴェトナムは「中国都城思想の受容地帯」であり、ヴェトナムを除く東南アジアは「インド都城思想の受容地帯」となる。

　

２　中国とインドの都城

 

  ２－１　中国の都城

　中国の都城の理念を示す書として『周礼』考工記がある。「方形」「旁三門」「九経九緯」「中央宮蕨」「左祖右社」「前朝後市」「左右民纏」など基本的な配置の理念が示されている。しかし、その理念をそのまま実現した例はない、とされる。元の大都（現在の北京）が『周礼』の理念に近い。漢民族以外の王権が自らの正統性の根拠として『周礼』に則ろうとしたと見ることができる。

　前漢長安と隋唐長安の間に大きな変化がある。前漢長安は、西南の「城」と東北の「郭」の二つからなっていた。天子の居所「城」の西南端にある未央宮にあり、天子はその前殿に座して東を向いて臣下と対した（座西朝東）。この天子の居所の配置は、家庭内の家長の西南居住という原則を都城に持ち込んだものとされる。前漢長安では都城を構成する「城」「郭」が一致せず、軸線が成立していない。

　前漢から後漢にかけて君子権の超越的確立をみると「都城」も変化していく。朝廷における儀礼の形式が、座西朝東から座北朝南（天子南面）へ変化すると。宮蕨は宮城北辺へ移動する。そこから都城中央を南北に貫通する中軸線として朱雀大街が建設される。この形式が日本の都城へ影響を及ぼしている。

 

  ２－２　インドの都城

　インドには古代の都市理念を記述する『アルタシャーストラ』がある。しかし、インドでもその都城思想を具現する都市遺跡はない。ただ、『ラーマーヤナ』におけるコーサラ国の都城アヨーディヤーの描写は、『アルタシャーストラ』の都城理念と同形である。古代インドに共通する都城理念が存在したことは確認できる。

　その基本理念については応地利明が見事な復元を行っている。

　ヒンドゥー都城の理念型をもとにした例としては、時代は下がるが１８世紀前半にジャイシンⅡ世によって建設されたジャイプルがある。

　ジャイプルの都市形態が『マナサラ』のプラスタラに基づくという説がある（F.B.　Havell, B.B. Dutt）。　しかし、門の数、幹線街路によって区切られる街区（チョウクリ）の数などプラスタラの形態とは明らかに異なる（A. K. Roy）。

  一方、全体の区画割りはナイン・スクエア（3x3=9分割）システム、あるいは9x9のプルシャ・マンダラに基づく、という説が一般的である。しかし、東南部に突出するチョウクリ（トプクハナハズリ）があって不完全である。そこで、北西の区画が山腹にかかって理念型を実現できないために、東南部にその代替の区画をつくったという説明がなされている。

  グリッドが時計回りに15度傾いていることも様々な解釈を生んできた。北西部にある沼地および地形の傾きがその理由であるという説がある（A. K. Roy）。また、ジャイ・シンⅡ世の星座である獅子座の方向にあわせて傾いているという説がある（S. A. Nilson）。さらに、軸線の傾きは、日影をつくり、風の道を考慮したためだという説がある（N. Rajbanshi）。

　グリッド・パターンについては、ヨーロッパの諸都市の影響があると主張するものもある。ジョハン・バプティスタ・ホマンの地図がニュルンブルグで1725年に出版されており、数多くのグリッド・パターンの都市図が掲載されていることを根拠にしている（Aman Nas）。

  確かに、『アルタシャストラ』の理念型がそのまま実現しているわけではない。チョウクリの分割パターンとしてプラスタラ・パターンが用いられていること、王宮の北方にブラーフマ・プリの存在があることなどから、ヒンドゥー理念に基づいて建設されたことは間違いないところである（T. Ohji）。

　

３　都城思想の受容

 

　３－１　日本

　日本における最初の都城は藤原京である。藤原京の祖型は隋唐長安に求められる。が、

「中央宮処＋豪族集住＋寺院」を基本とする擬都城の段階であった。但し、宮城南方を南北に貫走する中軸線を既に備えている。中国の都城思想はいち早く受容されていたと見ていい。

　王権の伸長とともに都城が成立する。藤原京から平城京への展開に日本の都城の成立をみることができる。平城京、長岡京、平安京という遷都の過程で、都市計画の手法も変わっていく。

　条坊制と言われる同じグリッドでも、三つの都城では異なっている。道路の規模は、藤原京を除いて、平城京から平安京までほぼ一致している。都の南北の主要街路は朱雀大路、東西は二条大路で、この交差する大路を別格として、大路、小路が設けられている。しかし、宅地割りは三都で異なる。藤原京と平城京では心々制が用いられ、平安京では内法制が用いられる。すなわち、藤原京と平城京では、道路の幅によって宅地に面積が異なるのに対して、平安京では、宅地の面積が同じになるように分割されるのである。長岡京は平城京と平安京の間で過渡的な分割方式がとられる。すなわち、宮城の東西街区あるいは南の区域で内法制がとられ、同じ面積の区画割りが行われる。戸主制という新制度による細分かつ方式が一部に導入されるのである。

　理念的に平安京において完成した日本の都城も当初は未完であった。平安京が定都となったころ（８１０年）は左京の発達が見られる。鎌倉時代にかけて中世都市化が進行し、境内と町から構成されるようになる。また、京と鎌倉の二都の構えとなる。応仁の乱を経て、上京下京の二元構造の統合が計られ、豊臣政権において城下町化が行われる。御土居がが設けられ、近世的町割りに改造が行われる。こうして、古代の条坊制に基づくグリッド街区も、構造を変え、様々に住みこなされていくのである。

　

　３－２　東南アジア

　東南アジアの都城については未だよくわからない面が多い。特に街区構成が不明である。しかし、インド的都城思想の受容は明快である。アンコール・トムースコータイーアユタヤの流れにそれをみることができる。

　アンコール・トムは、『シルパシャストラ』の『マヤマタ』などのいうダンダカ・タイプとされる。しかし、それと同時に、「中央神域」「宮処の北方立地」などの点で『アルタシャーストラ』の語る都市理念と同質である。

　スコータイの都城を市門の位置関係から復元すると、中央に寺院と宮処が並び立つ構成をしている。王権が伸長し、教権と並立する段階を象徴する。アユタヤでは、王宮の正面から東方に向けて軸線が走り、その軸線上の南と北に大寺院が建設される。その配列関係は隋唐長安とまったく同型である。

 

４　チャクラヌガラ

　チャクラヌガラは、インドネシアでは極めて珍しい格子状の道路パターン（グリッド・パターン）を持った都市である。ここでは、チャクラヌガラの構成について、建設当初の姿を推測し、考察してみたい。チャクラヌガラにはインドの都市計画思想の影響をみることができるであろうか。それとも中国の都市計画思想の影響を見ることができるであろうか。

 

　４－１　街路パターンと宅地割

　チャクラヌガラの街路体系は3つのレヴェルからなっている。街路は広いものから順に、マルガ・サンガ marga sanga、マルガ・ダサ marga dasa、マルガ margaと呼ばれている。サンガは9、ダサは10を意味する。マルガ・サンガはチャクラヌガラの中心で交わる大通りである。このマルガ・サンガは正確に東から西・北から南に走り、四辻を形成する。そして、マルガ・ダサが各住区を区画する通りであり、マルガが各住区の中を走る通りである。

　宅地１筆あたりの計画寸法および道路幅の計画寸法について、古い壁の残っている宅地を選んで実測を行った結果、計測した宅地の東西方向の平均は26．5ｍ、最大は30．44ｍ、最小は25．08ｍ、また南北方向は平均24．53ｍ、最大は26．84ｍ、最小は21．55ｍであった。宅地の計画寸法は東西約26ｍ、南北約24ｍ、一宅地あたりの面積は約624㎡となる。

　古老によれば、「プカランガン（屋敷地）の計画寸法は25ｍ×25ｍであり、宅地を測る単位としてトンバ tomba がある。トンバは槍の長さであり約2．5ｍ、25ｍというのはその10倍である。」。また、「1プカランガンは8アレ are（800㎡）であり、正方形である。」という。「1プカランガンは6 are （600㎡）である。」と異説があるが、実測では25ｍ×25ｍの正方形のプカランガン（屋敷地）は存在せず、当初からほぼ26ｍ×24ｍで計画されたものと考えられる。

　実測によるとマルガ・サンガは東西の通りで36．52ｍ、南北の通りで44．05ｍ、マルガダサは、ややばらつきがあるが平均17．14ｍ、最頻値で18ｍであり、約18ｍで計画されたものと考えられる。マルガは平均で7．75ｍであり、約8ｍで計画されたものと考えられる。またタクタガンの寸法は、マルガ・サンガで11．63ｍ、マルガ・ダサで4～6ｍであった。これらの数値によるとマルガ・ダサでで四方を囲まれたブロックの東西寸法は、宅地寸法（東西）26ｍ×8＋小路（marga）8ｍ×3＝232ｍ。南北寸法は、宅地寸法（南北）24ｍ×10＝240ｍになる。また、タクタガンの寸法を4ｍとしてブロックの寸法に含めると、興味深いことに、232ｍ＋4ｍ×2＝240ｍとなり、１ブロックの寸法は240ｍ×240ｍの正方形となる。

 

　４－２　住区構成－－－カラン

　寸法計画の面からは、マルガ・ダサで周囲を囲まれたブロックが１つの住区を構成していたと考えられる。また現在のカランの構成パターンもマルガ・ダサを境界とするものがあり、マルガ・ダサで囲まれたブロックが一つの住区を構成していたと考えられる。

　古老の話によると、南北に走る1本のマルガに10づつの宅地が向き合うのが基本である。そして、この両側町をマルガと呼び、2つのマルガで1クリアンを構成する。クリアンとは、バリではバンジャールの長を意味する。また、2クリアンすなわち80宅地で1つのカラン（住区）を形成する、ということである。

　現在、カランはインドネシアの行政組織においてはＲＷに対応する組織となっている。バリの居住単位はバンジャールと呼ばれている。バンジャールは形式的には集団の単位であり、公共施設の管理・地域の治安維持・民事紛争の解決をおこなう。そして、その長はクリアン・バンジャールと呼ばれた。

　現在、チャクラヌガラのバリ人の間ではバンジャールもカランも使われるが、バンジャールが社会組織の単位であるのに対してカランは土地の単位を意味する。同じ土地出身の地縁集団としての性格を合わせ持つのがカランである。

 

　４－３　祭祀施設と住区構成

　チャクラヌガラの中心に位置するプラ・メルには33の祠があるが、それと対応する33のプラが現在も残っている。プラを持たないカランも見られ、カランとプラの対応関係は崩れているが、かっての姿を推察することができる。

　ロンボク島のプラの中で最も大きく、最も印象的なのがプラ・メルである。最東にあるスワは3つの部分のうち一番重要な区画である。ここには塔や祠などの建物が配置されている。このうち主要な建物は、高くそびえ立つ三つの塔である。これらの三つの塔を囲むようにして、北側に14棟、東側に16棟の、塔の前に3棟、計33棟の小祠が建っている。それぞれの祠にカラン名が書かれており、チャクラヌガラと周辺の村を合わせた33のカランによって維持管理がなされている。

　建設当初は、存在したが、時代の経過によりその住区組織自体が消滅し、現在は存在しないプラも確認された。また、祠を維持管理する住区はチャクラヌガラの格子状の都市計画地域外にも存在することが明らかになった。プラ・メルの小祠を維持管理する住区が変化していないのであれば、格子状の区域外にもプラ・メル建設当初から、バリ人の住区があったことになる。プラの分布を見ると、古老のいう1ブロックが1カランとなるものも多く、各カランに1つのプラという対応関係は見られない。興味深いのは、南のアンガン・トゥル PURA ANGGAN TELU である。この地域は中心部と同様の町割りがなされている。当初から計画されたとみていい。北は、プラ・ジェロがあり、東はプラ・スラヤがあり、プラ・スエタがある。チャクラヌガラはオランダとの戦争で一度大きく破壊されており、必ずしも現状からは当初の計画理念を決定することはできないが、プラ・メルに属するプラの分布域がおよそ当初の計画域を示していると考えていいと思われる。

　チャクラヌガラのマルガ・サンガ以南の地域を旧市街であったと考えると、マルガ・ダサで四方を囲まれたブロック32からなる。王宮のあるブロックを加えると33個になり、プラメルの祠の数に一致する。チャクラヌガラの1カランを建設当初はマルガ・ダサ、もしくはマルガ・ダサとマルガ・サンガで囲まれたブロックで構成する概念があったということも考えられる。