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2021年10月11日月曜日

Towards an Architecture based on Vernacular Values in the Regions: On Paradigm of Asian Studies for Architecture and Urban Planning, Keynote Speech, The 6th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia

 Keynote SpeachTowards an Architecture based on Vernacular Values in the Regions On Paradigm of Asian Studies for Architecture and Urban Planning Keynote Speech The 6th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia “A+T NeoValue in Asian Architecture” ~ctober 25282006 Daegu Convention Center Daegu Korea20061027

Towards an Architecture based on Vernacular Values in the Regions: On Paradigm of Asian Studies for Architecture and Urban Planning

 


Introduction

  I have been deeply involved in urban and architectural fields in Asia for more than a quarter of a century since 1978, when we started the research project on human settlements in Southeast Asia with my colleagues of Toyo University, Japan and jointly with ITS (Institute Teknologi Surabaya) research Group leaded by Prof. Johan Silas.

I firstly carried out field survey on kampungs (urban villages)[1], the word of which OED (Oxford English Dictionary) says, is the origin of the word ‘compound’. Hearing that the enclosed living quarter in Batavia and Malacca was called ‘kampung’, Englishman began to use the word ‘kampung=compound’ to native settlement in India in early 19th century, thereafter also in Africa. I am sure now that kampung is so interesting as a model of urban community to be developed to the neighborhood unit of a new town even in another countries[2]. Anyway, the world of kampung opened my eyes to the vast field of urabn tissues in Asia.

  I wrote my doctorate thesis titled "Studies on Transitional Process of Kampung and Kampung Housing System --Considerations on Alternative Strategies for Housing"(Tokyo University) in 1987[3] and had an opportunity to build an experimental house dubbed as “Surabaya Eco House” in 1997-9 based on almost ten years of field work.

  After moving to Kyoto University, I concentrated on rural settlements in Lombok Island next to Bali Island for several years. And in that island, we discovered a unique Hindu city named Cakranegara, which soon became clear to have been established as a colonial city of Balinese kingdom named ‘Karangasem’ in early 18th century. To compare the Hindu city and Muslim city has become one of the subjects of my research from that time. The fact that the formation of Muslim quarters are very different from that of Hindu quarters in Cakranegara further expanded the field of my research. I wrote a paper[4] on Cakranegara in 2002.

  Looking for the target city next to Cakranegara, we thought of Jaipur[5], the capital of Rajasthan, India, famous as a gridiron city, which was constructed by Jai Singh II in the same early 18th century as was Cakranegara. Two cities. one of which is located at the western end, and the other at the eastern end of the Hindu civilization, were thought as two typical models of Hindu city, so we decided to develop our research field to Indian Subcontinent. We surveyed many cities as Ahmedabad[6], Madurai[7], Varanasi,[8] Lahore, Delhi, Katmandu[9](Nepal), Patan[10](Nepal), Thimi[11](Nepal) and othr towns in the region until now.

  I wrote a book titled “The City as Mandala; The Spatial Idea of Hindu City and its Transformation”(Japanese) in 2006 by picking up three cities, Madurai, Jaipur and Cakranegara and am preparing with Dr. M.M Pant to publish a book titled “Stupa & Swastika; A study on planning principles of Patan, Katmandu Valley”(English) in 2007.

  Next step had come with research project on colonial city funded by Ministry of Education and Science, Japan since 1997. We recognized the great western impact on city planning in Asia through studies on urban tissues for these years. For the first two years (1997-98), we concentrated on the British colonial cities like Munbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras), Kolkata (Calcutta)[12], which led to the idea of modern planning method for all over the world and turn our eyes to Dutch colonial cities in Asia. AThe reason is that many cities in Asia originated from the bases(lodges, factories, forts, castles) of Portuguese and --especially, The Netherlands had been the only country for Japanese to contact the world through Dezima during 1641-1853.

  The Netherlands colonized Indonesian Archipelago and established Batavia (Jakarta) as a powerful headquarter of Dutch East India Company (VOC), which closely connected Dezima, Nagasaki, Japan to the Modern World system. We conducted field survey on Jakarta[13], Malacca, Galle, Colombo, Cochin[14], Nagapattinam[15]…Cape Town and finally stretching our legs to Dutch colonial cities in West Indies as Recife (Brazil), Paramaribo (Surinam), Willemstad (Curacao). In terms of colonial cities, we had chances twice to hold international symposia at SINICA, Taiwan[16].

  In terms of cities and architecture in East Asia, we are learning a lot from studies done by colleagues in China and Korea, through JAABE and ISAIA. I am making a study on Beijing[17], Taipei[18], and Korean cities till the moment with foreign students from Asia.

  Based on my experiences in Asian field for a quarter century, I will raise the further topics to clarify from the East.

 

Beyond Dichotomy of Europe vs. Asia

Fig1 Cover of “History of Urban & Architectural in Asia” by S. Funo (under translation in China & Korea)

Western ideas, methods and techniques related architecture, building construction, and urban planning have been influential to Japan since Meiji Restoration, which is the same in Korea and China. It is notable that Chuta Itoh (1867-1952), a very unique Japanese architect & architectural historian, who was so interested in Asian architecture competitive to European architecture and traveled from Tokyo to Athens through the Eurasian Continent, western architecture is always model to follow up. He was eager to prove Goju-no-tou (a five-storied pagoda) of Horyuji temple, which is the world oldest wooden structure, is comparable to the Parthenon Temple in Athens. The dichotomy of the west and the east, or Europe vs. Asia continues to dominate our brain and frame of references. For western architects like Josiah Condor who was the first professor to teach history of architecture and building construction to Japanese, the problems in adapting the western idea and method to the local conditions was the most important issue to solve. English architects had already grappled with harmonization Indo-Saracen architecture and European architecture in India.

Chuta Itoh wrote a paper titled ‘Asia is one’ following Tenshin Okakura’s “The Ideal of East” published in London. However, It is not saying that Asia is not one. Asia has many architectural traditions region by region.

It is our task to discover indigenous principles of architectural techniques and planning methods and to clarify the relationship between regions. I wrote two text books, one is “A History of Asian Cities and Architecture”, which is now on the process of translation both in China and Korea and the other is “The Houses across the World”. I think a plenty of works to stimulate our curiosity in Asian fields are left.

How to define geographical range of Asia and how to differentiate the periods in history is an issue of primary importance. We indeed need a global view of architectural history.

I suppose the world of vernacular architecture constitutes the base of architectural development in the region. From the north to the south and from the east and west, Eurasia consists of various districts from the ecological view point. And Asia has 3 regional cores of urban civilizations, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Indus and Huang He, the influence of which extended all over Asia. Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism that rose and spread in Asia created the architectural tradition of building types needed in each of the regions. Chinese tradition of architecture and city planning is also very influential especially in East and Southeast Asia. If we see the architectural tradition in Southeast Asia, several layers of influences due to Indianization, Sinicization, Islamication, Westernization, and Modernization, could be differentiated in even one city.

What we should clarify is not one architectural system but various streams of architectural traditions in Asia.

 

Housing System based on Eco-System in the Region

 Housing and urban issues are still big problems in Asian countries, especially in developing countries. We have many problems to solve and many tasks to implement in the field of housing that require collaboration. We can learn a lot from kampungs and Kampung Improvement Program (KIP) s, which are based on own values as I mentioned above.

Urban settlements in the cities of developing countries are not the impedances to be swept away. Most of them are in poor condition physically, and economically but are not necessarily poor socially. It should be emphasized that urban settlement in the developing countries is not a slum, which shows different appearances from slums in Western cities. Destruction of social structure, bad and criminal acts etc. are not rarely seen in developing countries. Kampung is not a discriminated settlement. Kampung community has own system. When we plan and design city or urban settlement, we must respect the values urban settlement has maintained.

 The characteristics to be noticed in planning are as follows.

  (1) Variety of Urban settlements

  Each urban settlement has its own characteristics that varies according to location (distance from the city center), constitution of income groups, migratory backgrounds of inhabitants or mobility of population, its history, its spatial pattern and so on. It's very important that distribution of various urban settlements give alternatives when people choose the place to live. Even the poorest income group can find some living quarters. Some scholar insists that variety of urban settlement is only a solution to the housing problems at the moment in developing regions.

 (2) Urban Settlements and their World

  Urban settlement is not a mere residential settlements. New town in Japan, for example, is often called Bed (Dormitory) Town because it has no other functions except sleeping (staying) especially for business man. But urban settlement in general has both functions of production and consumption. The cycle from production to consumption can be a closed one within an urban settlement such as kampung. Living place is very near to workplace. Almost all the daily activities can be carried out in the neighborhood unit. It must be pointed out that urban settlement itself is parasitic to the city center, which has various facilities for job opportunity. They cannot survive without earning money from outside the kampung. But urban settlement largely forms autonomous and self-contained community.

(3) Heterogeneity of Urban Settlement

  Urban settlement like kampung forms plural society and is not a homogeneous community. Mix habitation, which means the situation various groups live together in a same area, is a characteristic of kampung. Rich people often live in next door to poor people. It should be noticed that rich people support the life of the poor even in the poorest kampungs.

 (4) Urban Settlement as a Highly Serviced Society---Hawkers (peddlers)' culture

  Everybody can get almost all the kinds of foods and goods for daily life because street vendor and peddlers are always rambling to serve the inhabitants. It is because job opportunity is very scarce in the kampung. But for the inhabitants, kampung is a highly serviced society.

 (5) Mutual Aid System

  Urban settlement like kampung communities is usually well organized. The inhabitants help themselves through the mutual aid activities, which is indispensable in the kampung life. The spirit of mutual aid characterizes kampung community.

(6) Preservation of Traditional Culture

  People tend to preserve the traditional way of life in the rural village from where he comes. Urban settlement should be considered to be a settlement that has own vernacular values.

 (7) Housing as a Process

   Housing is a process. Urban settlements are generated by accumulating infinite housing process involving all the diversities of its  inhabitants. In urban (Regional) planning or housing project, we should accept growth and a gradual process of addition in the making of an individual house.

 (8) Complicated Ownership Relations

  It is one of the major characteristics that ownership relations are complicated. It may appear as a development lag in the modern world, but complicated land ownership relations sometimes help in resisting  the urban property speculation.

I think how to evaluate these features of urban settlements is very important in planning and designing. What can we do in front of the realities of cities of developing countries? I suggest that we should follow the basic principles of urban planning below.

Fig2 A Kampung in Surabaya 

 A Autonomy & People's Participation

 B Network Structure in place of Hierarchical Structure

 C Housing by Self help and Mutual aid

 D Housing as a process

 E Housing based on vernacular value

 F Housing system based on Eco-system

 G Appropriate Technology for housing

 

We have possibilities to encounter disaster anywhere and anytime. We had earthquakes like Pakistan (2005) and central Jawa (2006). I myself fortunately could have survived from Indian Ocean Tsunami when I was on the coast in Sri Lanka on that day. Disaster housing system should be established in partnership among Asian countries.

 

Urban Resources as Mutual Heritage

Most of the big cities in Asia are becoming similar and similar because buildings are built by using the same materials and same construction techniques based on Industrialization. Buildings that formed the core of old town in Asian countries are being replaced by high-rise buildings in the same way. Even modern architecture built 50 years ago is hanging by a thread. How to preserve, conserve and revitalize the old core of the cities is one crucial problem common to Asian cities.

In case of many cities whose origins are traced back to the colonial period, the problem presents certain complications since reconstruction or preservation of colonial monuments built by Europeans recalls the memory of domination and exploitation. It is natural for Indonesian people to oppose the proposal of reconstruction of Batavia castle by the Netherlands.

  But we have a case in Sri Lanka who launches the concept of mutual heritage and dual parentage. European culture has already penetrated into most of the regions in South and Southeast Asia sometimes deeply or partially. Sri Lanka is willingly to propose, for example, Galle Fort built by Dutch is registered as a world heritage site.

  However we also have opposing instance in East Asia. Old Korean National Museum (the former Japanese Colonial Office (Chosen Sotokuhu) building) was destructed in 1995, for the 50th anniversary of liberation, which I believe is political correctness. On the other hand, the former Japanese Colonial Office in Taipei (Taiwan Sotokuhu) is still being used as home of presidents. It depends upon the case, which way people chose.

  Anyway, the periods of scrap and build have gone. How to reuse and convert the architectural stocks are important issues for the revitalization of the old urban core in Asian cities. We have many good examples in Korea.

Fig3 Galle, Sri Lanka

 

Eco-cycled Architecture and Environmental Restoration

 We have a chance to build an experimental house called Surabaya Eco house, which aims at developing the model of collective housing in South East Asia (Humid Tropical Regions). This experimental project firstly launch the basic plan based on our previous studies on kampungs. Our proposal was luckily accepted as a project by IDI (International Foundation Development of Infrastructure), and the model house was built at Surabaya (ITS campus, Indonesia) in June 1998. We have monitored the environmental conditions of Eco-cycle House. We are thinking to try the experiment based on the analysis and to push out our model to be popularized in the near future.

The basic techniques and methods are as follows

A. Skeleton-Infill Structural Method

  We have designed a building’s skeleton of long-durable concrete structure, and partitions and exterior walls (Infill) of flexible structure to accommodate dwellers needs, allowing them to participate (Do-it-Yourself).

B.    Planning Adequate to Local Life Style

  Local life style has been given priority by enlarging sections for common use in collective houses, with broader free and common space arrangements. Private sections have been made more independent space.

C.    Passive Cooling Technology

Double Roofing

To effectively break sunlight heat, the roof has been designed as double-layered-roof with heat-insulating and air layers. The heat-insulating material has been developed of local products, coconut fiber. The air layer is placed the outer-side of heat-insulator intending quick spontaneous discharge of sunlight heat.

Windows and Outer Walls for Insulating Sunlight Heat

A bigger roof and deeper eaves have been built to cut the sunlight, and a wooden-side walls system not to absorb sunlight heat.

Shared Open Space Arrangements, Ventilation and Natural Lighting

The free and open air space shared in common has been utilized to secure horizontal and vertical ventilation channels. Windows have been installed on the top roof to facilitate ventilation and heat discharge, and to get natural lighting. And a 3-story high void space has been built at the center of the building.

Ventilation Channels in Private Sections

To facilitate cross ventilation in private sections, an arrangement of openings and operating system have been designed. Two openings have been installed on the outer wall, and a vent window onto commonly shared open space. The operating system has been designed to allow ventilation not only during daytime but also at night.

Cold Storage by Night Ventilation

Concrete floor slab with big thermal capacity is utilized as a cooling system. Cool air is led into rooms by the night ventilation to store the coolness in the concrete floor. This provides a coolant for the next daytime.

Radiant Cooling System by Circulating Water

  A polypropylene pipe is buried in the concrete slab floor to circulate well water for radiant cooling effect. The well water is kept in underground tank beneath the ground floor and is circulated by a solar-photovoltaic driven pump. The circulated water is reused for flushing toilets or sprinkling.

Fig4 Surabaya Eco House


  After completion of the building, the thermal conditions have been monitored to verify the passive cooling effect. The effects of ventilating layers and heat-insulation materials are quite remarkable. The coconut fiber’s heat resistance can be estimated, and it has been proved to have good thermal properties as insulation materials. The concrete floor slab was cooled down by massive ventilation at night when temperature goes down, to determine the effects of cold storage. The daytime temperatures are about 2 degrees lower than the case without any night ventilation. The floor slab surface has a promising cooling radiation. Circulating-water radiant cooling effects fluctuate according to the water temperatures. The lower the water temperature the better the effect, but even at 28 degrees is sufficient for the radiant cooling effect.

 My experience above is still limited and has many problems to be discussed, but the so-called Eco-cycled Architecture is one of our subjects we should continue to study.

Restoration of natural environment is becoming very stimulated and standing issue for us to pursue after Cheong Gye Cheon Project, which can be truly called ‘ A Revolution in Seoul’.

It is impossible to remove elevated highway and covering of river in the city center , because heavy traffic jam should occur in most of the cities. However, the greatness of Cheong Gye Cheon Project exists not only on the point that removes high way from the viewpoint of urban landscape, but more splendidly the impact produced by the project to the city center are multiplying.

The Project declared ‘Paradigm shift of urban management-Development à High quality of life-from Functionality and Efficiency to Environmental protection and preservation and Human-oriented and Environment-friendly city, and stated Urban Rebirth Recovery of 600 year-history and culture-Rediscover of Seoul’s historical roots and original look and Cultural space for all citizens.

  It is true that structures had been beyond repair and pollution of river was very severe. Fundamental solution was needed to safety problem and improvement of quality of water.

Water supply plan for intermittent stream (water from the Han river: 120,000 ton/day, underground water from subway stations: 22,000 ton/day), waterway plan (average water depth: 40 cm, flow velocity: 0.24 m/sec) and sewer system are well planned.

  Restoration of ecological environment (wild plants along the stream, green areas for insects and birds, reservoirs for fish way and water-depth control) is bringing an immediate result. Water quality was strikingly bettered(BOD: 100~2501~2 ppm) and the number of species of fishes, birds and insects is increasing.

The most splendid experience of Cheong Gye Cheon Project is revitalization of downtown and the method to stimulate urban redevelopment of neighborhood around Cheong Gye Cheon stream. There are still sprawling commercial districts around Cheong Gye Cheon (Homes more than 200,000 merchants and 60,000shops). The areas still look like slums due to dilapidated buildings aged 40-50years, but are vital part of Seoul’s economy. Doing away with the worry about business decline during restoration project due to access difficulty, traffic congestion, noise and dust, was the key of the Project. A huge amount of time and energy were poured into collecting opinion of merchants through public hearings (More than 4,000 interviews to Organization of CGC Residents & Merchants Council and CGC Merchants Association). One of the most important effects in the Project is the process of people’s participation in this process of implementation.

 

Fig5 Cakranegara, Lombok


Asian Traditions of Architecture and Urban Planning

When we are going to step in historical studies and field studies on Asian architecture, a huge amount of works are laid in front of us.

If I list several subjects to be pursued from a Japanese view points and concerns, followings are very attractive.

1. An Anthropology of Architecture in Asia (AAA)

Where are roots or archetypes of Japanese traditional architecture is one of our concerns. It is taught that Japanese domestic architecture have two archetypes, ground floor type (Tateana, pit house style) and raised floor type (Takayuka, highblock house style), which are thought to be traced back to two origins, i.e. the north or the west and the south. The ground floor type forms the tradition of folk houses for commoners and raised floor type forms the tradition of Shinto shrines, storages and houses for the nobles (Shinden zukuri, Shoin zukuri,…). These two traditions are, of course, related to those of China and Korean peninsula. The latter traditions are common in Austronesian world that extends from Easter Island to Madagascar Island, the origin of which is considered Taiwan or South China[19].

We have already “Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World [20] by P. Oliver. We have to clarify various roots of architecture in Eurasian Continent.

2. World History of Buddhist Architecture

Buddhist temples introduced through Korean peninsula from China made great impacts to Japanese architecture. However, the history of Buddhist architecture is written as closed story within Japan. We need more cross cultural views. How and why, for examples, the original form of Stupa had been modified into various forms region by region should be explained interactively. As for building construction techniques, especially, Japan and Korea accepted great impacts from China and modified the form in the process to adapt to the local conditions, which is interesting subject to be studied collaboratively from broad view. 

3. The Idea of City and Cosmology in Asia

If we look at the tradition of cities in Asia, several stories are needed to be discussed. Asia is roughly divided into two areas in terms of interrelations with urban form and cosmologies. Asia has two cores, which established the idea of city, India and China. Both had strong influences to their peripheral regions. Hindu idea of City, which had been written in “Arthasastra” or “Vastusastra”s like “Manasara” and “Mayamata”, was transmitted to Southeast Asian regions like Angkor, Myanmar, Thailand, Jawa, and Cakranegara. Ancient Chinese Idea of capital city, which had been described in “周礼考工記 and implemented later in the form of Beijing, were transmitted to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. However, in western part of Eurasia which is now mostly Islam regions, we cannot find interrelations between the form of the city and cosmology in the regions. We have to clarify the various urban traditions in Asia.

Urban tissues in Asian cities at present are also investigated carefully to propose the future of the city.

4. Modern World System and History of Modern Architecture

  Mongol united Eurasia in 13th century and the world history was thus first described. On the other hand, Europe established the so called modern world system during 1450-1640 according to I. Wallerstein. As for history of architecture, global views are needed to avoid Europe vs. Asia dichotomy. Asia has several strongholds of architectural traditions as Janet L. Abu-Lughod shows[21].

  We need to investigate the various traditions before western impact. And then, Westernization becomes common subjects to study cooperatively. We should look at what happened in Asia the process that led to the acceptance of the idea of western architecture.

  The study of colonial architecture and colonial city will contribute to the study of acculturation, which discusses the relations between the dominates vs. the dominated, European civilization vs. indigenous culture. Who accept and reject what, is the key issue. Duration of colonial periods, depth of penetration, levels of indigenous technologies,. …should be carefully compared. It is said that Dutchmen had been wearing the same clothes for the first hundred years in Indonesia. They firstly built their houses in the same way as in their homeland by conveying all the building materials from native land. The form and style of their houses, however, are not appropriate to the climate in the tropics, so they adopt the vocabularies and styles of vernacular architecture, for example, big roof that store cool airs during night is needed, gradually.

  The processes of acceptance of modern architecture in Asian regions are mostly neglected by European architects. We should know many talented western architects like McLain Pont and Thomas Kirsten who made efforts to harmonize modern technologies to local conditions.

 

  What I would like to say again is that we have many tasks to study and implement based on our own history and experience. Many important experiences are still neglected from Orientalist’s view. I really expect the role and development of ISAIA and JAABE from the bottom of my heart.

 

Notes



[1] Shuji Funo: Dominant Issues of Three Typical Kampungs and Evaluation of KIP, Peran Perbaikan Kampung dalam Pembangunan Kota, KOTAMADJA SURABAYA ITS, 1985

[2] Shuji Funo, Naohiko Yamamoto, Johan Silas: Typology of Kampung Houses and their Transformation Process A Study on Urban Tissues of Indonesian Cities, Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.1 No.2, pp193-200, Nov. 2002

[3] AIJ Best Paper Award in 1991

[4] Shuji Funo: The Spatial Formation in Cakranegara, Lombok, in Peter J.M. Nas (ed.):Indonesian town revisited, Muenster/Berlin, LitVerlag, 2002

[5] Shuji Funo, Lanshiang Huan, Shu Yamane, Naohiko Yamamoto, Mohan Pant: Street Pattern Block System of Jaipur City, Rajastan, India, 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'

Shuji Funo, Lanshiang Huan, Shu Yamane, Naohiko Yamamoto, Mohan Pant: Building Types and Block Pattern of Jaipur City, Rajastan, India, 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'

Shuji Funo, Naohiko Yamamoto, Mohan Pant: Space Formation of Jaipur City, Rajastan, India-An Analysis on City Maps (1925-28) Made by Survey of India, Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.1 No.1 March 2002

[6] Shuji Funo, Shu Yamane, Norihisa Numata, Eiji Negami: Space Formation of the Street Blocks within the Walled City of Ahmedabad (Gujarat, India), 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'

Shuji Funo, Shu Yamane, Norihisa Numata, Eiji Negami: Group Form of Urban Houses of Manek Chowk District (Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India), 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'

[7] Ayako Otsuji, Kiwamu Yanagisawa, Shuji Funo: Spatial Formation of Madurai, India:-Compared with Rajdhani Plan, Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, AIJ, 25 May, “Global Environment and Diversity of Asian Architecture”, June 1-4, 2004, Matsue, Japan.

[8] Kiwamu Yanagisawa, Shuji Funo: Spatial Formation of Varanasi, India- An Analysis of the Urban Structure---Pilgrimage Roads, Mohalla as Community, Composition of Block and Houses, Proceedings 4th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, “Resource Architecture and Modern Technology”, September 17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.

[9] Mohan Pant and Shuji Funo: The Grid and Modular Measures in the Town Planning of Mohenjo daro and Katmandu Valley A Study on Modular Measures in Block and Plot Divisions in the Planning of Mohenjo daro and Sirkap (Pakistan), and Thimi (Katmandu Valley), Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.4 No.1, pp5159, May. 2005

[10] Shuji Funo, Yasushi Takeuchi, Mohan Pant: Considerations on the Distribution of Small Ritual Facilities on the Public Space in Patan (Katmandu Valley, Nepal), 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'

[11] Mohan Pant, Shuji Funo: Ancestral Shrine and the Structure of Katmandu Valley Towns-the Case of Thimi, 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'

Mohan Pant, Shuji Funo: Dwelling Types of the Town of Thimi, Katmandu Valley—An Analysis of Community Dwelling Clusters, Proceedings 4th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, “Resource Architecture and Modern Technology”, September 17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.

Mohan Pant, Shuji Funo: A Morphological Analysis of Neighborhood Structure - Toles and the Ritual Artifacts of the Katmandu Valley Towns – the Case of Thimi, ‘Special Issue The Wisdom of Asian Art and Architecture’, “ MANUSIA” Journal of Humanities, No.3 2002

Mohan Pant, Shuji Funo: A Study on the Pattern of Plot Division of Courtyard Residential Blocks of Patan, Katmandu Valley, Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.3 No.1, pp197-1205, May. 2004

[12] ] Shu Yamane, Shuji Funo, Takashi Ikejiri: A Study on the Formation and the Transformation of British Colonial Cities in India-Town Planning and its Transformation after Independence in New Delhi, Proceedings 4th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, “Resource Architecture and Modern Technology”, September 17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.

Takashi Ikejiri, Masao Ando, Shuji Funo: An Overview of Spatial Formation and Transformation of the “Black Towns” in India, Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, AIJ, 25 May, “Global Environment and Diversity of Asian Architecture”, June 1-4, 2004, Matsue, Japan.

[13] Shuji Funo Bambang F. Ferianto, Kyouta Yamada: Considerations on Typology of Kampung House and Betawi House of KAMPUNG_LUAR BATANG(JAKARTA), Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.4 No.1, pp129-136, May. 2005

[14] Kyouta Yamada, Shuji Funo: Considerations on Block Formation and Residential
Typology in Fort Cochin (Kerala, India), Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, AIJ, 25 May, “Global Environment and Diversity of Asian Architecture”, June 1-4, 2004, Matsue, Japan.

[15] KyotaYamada, Shuji Funo: A Study on the Spatial Formation of Cochin, India-Case Study of Dutch Colonial City in India, Proceedings 4th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, “Resource Architecture and Modern Technology”, September 17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.

[16] 布野修司、近代世界システムと植民都市の形成---Modern World System and the Formation of Colonial City, 国際学術検討会「被殖民都市與建築」---International Symposium: Urban and Architectural Histories under Colonial Rule in Asia, Taiwan, SINICA 6-7, Sep. 2000, 台湾中央研究院,200096-7

布野修司: 植民都市の文化変容―土着と外来―都市住居の形成 殖民都市的文化轉化;本土與外來—以城市居住形式為中心論述—, 「第二回被殖民都市與建築—本土文化與殖民文化—」國際學術研討會、台湾中央研究院台湾史研究所,1124,民国932004)年

[17] Yi Deng, Shuji Funo, Tsutomu Shigemura: A Study on the Block Formation and its Subdivision into the Housing Lots in the Inner City of Beijing An Analysis of Qianlong Jingcheng Quantu, Map of the Capital City of Qianlong Period (1750), Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.1 No.2, pp209-217, Nov. 2002

[18] Ming-chung Chuch, Shuji Funo, Sadahiko Tanaka: Community Organization of the Village Settlement and Service Area of Religious Centres: Si-Miao, in Konghinglie (Singdyam City, Taiwan), Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.1 No.3, pp191-198, May. 2003

[19] Waterson, Roxana,”The Living House: An Anthropology of Architecture in South-East Asia”,

[20]  P. Oliver (ed.) :”Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World, Cambridge University Press, 1997

[21]  Janet L. Abu-Lughod,”Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D.1250-1350”, Oxford University Press, 1989.

2021年10月10日日曜日

住まいのベーシック 屋根,柱,床 ❸高床と土間・・・床のレヴェル 三つの高さの使い分け 高床式住居の謎

住まいのベーシック 屋根,柱,床,『週刊東洋経済』,20020406


高床と土間・・・・・・・床のレヴェル

三つの高さの使い分け  高床式住居の謎

 

床をどう設定するかによって住まいのしつらえは大きく異なる。日本では、玄関で靴を脱いで履き替える。全く土足という住まいは今でも珍しいだろう。畳の部屋が大抵一部屋はまだある。しかし、一方、机やベッドのないのも最早珍しい。明治になって机やテーブルが導入されて以来、僕らは椅子座か床座かどちらかに決定し得ないでいる。

日本の住宅の起源と伝統は、土間式の竪穴式住居・農家住宅の系列と高床式の高倉・貴族住宅(寝殿造り、書院造り)の系列に分けて、前者が北方系、後者が南方系と説明される。北方にも高倉の系列はあり単純ではないが、高床の形式が南方に多いのはいうまでもない。日本の現代住居はせいぜい「揚げ床」であって高床とは言わない。しかし、地表面と生活面となる床を区別するかどうかは大きな問題である。

世界を広く見渡すと、とりわけ、イースター島からマダガスカル島までオーストロネシア世界の全体に高床式の住居が分布している。ところがいくつか例外がある。ヴェトナムの南シナ海沿岸、そしてジャワ島、バリ島、ロンボク島である。また、西イリアンとチモール島の高地、そしてモルッカ諸島の小さな島ブル島が高床式住居の伝統を欠いている。ヴェトナムは中国の影響であるとして、同じジャワでもジャカルタのある西ジャワ(スンダ地方)には高床形式があるから単純に気候風土の問題とも言えない。高床式住居の起源とルーツをめぐっては未だ謎がある。

謎は謎として、あることに気がついた。土間式というけれど、ベッドが用いられる場合がある。土間式のロンボク島では屋根のついたベンチ様のブルガという露台が用いられる。また、高床の倉の下に床が張られて使われている。さらに、住居の内外で段差が設けられる場合がある。

農家住宅といっても、時代が下れば土間のみではなく床が張られるようになる。実は竪穴式住居にも床が張られていた可能性が高い。言いたいのは、どんな住まいでもいくつかのレヴェル(高さ)を使い分けているのではないか、ということだ。すなわち、床面、床上3045cm(椅子面、座机面)、そして床上60cm80cm(テーブル面)の三つである。西欧人だって床上に寝そべることはある。下足を脱ぐ伝統は実は日本に限らない。人間の活動、姿勢に大きな違いがあるわけではないだろう。三つのレヴェルをうまく使い分けている住まいが居心地いいのである。

 




2021年10月9日土曜日

住まいのベーシック 屋根,柱,床 ❷四本柱の家・・・架構の原理 移築可能な骨組み 穀倉が基本

 住まいのベーシック 屋根,柱,床,『週刊東洋経済』,20020406


四本柱の家・・・・・・・架構の原理

移築可能な骨組み 穀倉が基本

 

 住まいにとって重要なのは骨組みである。骨組みがしっかりしていないと地震や風に対して弱いし、長持ちしない。建築の構造や構法は難しいと思われるかもしれないが意外に簡単である。世界各地の民家が基本原理を教えてくれる。

自分の手で家を建てるとしたらどうするか。一番簡単なのは四本の柱を建てて梁で繋ぎ屋根を架ける方法である。日本の竪穴式住居の場合、交差した二本の木を二組、向かい合わせて地面に並べておいて引っ張り起こす。ひとりでは無理だが案外簡単に立ち上がる。要所を縛って四本柱を建てれば一応の空間が出来る。日本の住居の原型は家屋文鏡に四種描かれているが、この基本型の応用である。

稲作文化圏あるいは木造文化圏にこの四本柱の骨組みは広範に見ることが出来る。典型的なのは穀倉で、住居の架構は倉の骨組みから発達してきたように思われる。南西諸島の高倉にそっくりな建築形式が北ルソン(フィリピン)の山岳地方にあるが住居である。同じ高倉をそのまま内部にもつ住居の形式もある。また、穀倉を基にした住居はインドネシアの島々にも見られる。

ジャワにはジョグロと呼ばれる屋根の中央を高く尖らせた住居がある。その屋根を支えるのがサカ・グルと呼ばれる四本柱である。穀倉よりはるかに大規模であるが原理は同じである。このサカ・グルの構法は、入植してきたオランダ人たちの邸宅にも用いられている。また、モスクや王宮などの公共建築にも用いられる。地域の建築の伝統は根強いということだが、構造方式が単純で基本的だからでもある。

まずはしっかり四本の柱を固めるのが肝要である。日本で大黒柱と呼ばれる柱はこの柱の一本であるが、四本一組で考えた方がいい。北陸地方に「枠の内(わくのうち)づくり」と呼ばれる構法がある。四本柱を太い差鴨居(さしがもい)で固めたものを「枠の内」という。この「枠の内」は、家は解体されても再び用いられるし、移築されることもある。ジャワの場合のサカ・グルも同様である。




 

2021年10月8日金曜日

住まいのベーシック 屋根,柱,床  ❶陸屋根(ろくやね)・・・屋根のシンボリズム  屋根には力がある

 住まいのベーシック 屋根,柱,床,『週刊東洋経済』,20020406



陸屋根(ろくやね)・・・・・・・・・屋根のシンボリズム

屋根には力がある


壁のない家はあっても屋根のない家はない。洞窟住居であれ、穿たれた洞穴を覆う丘や山が屋根である。屋根すなわち覆い(シェルター)は住まいの基本要素であり、その形は第一に住み手や民族、地域の表現となる。屋根の形にはそれだけ象徴的な力がある。

日本の各地に見られる入母屋屋根をいくつも重ねた御殿のような民家は、お城のような家に住みたい、という住み手の願望の表現である。また、ミナンカバウ族(西スマトラ)の水牛の角を模したとされる屋根は民族の表現である。ミナンカバウとは「勇敢な水牛」という意味であり、そのアイデンティティが屋根の形に表現されるのである。しかし、同じ民族だから同じ形ということはない。ミナンカバウ族は出稼ぎが得意でマレー半島のヌグリ・スンビランに多く移住しているが、その屋根の棟は直線的で、間取りは全く異なる。地域で産する材料によって、生活様式によって屋根の形も間取りも変わるのである。

 面白いのは一方で地域を超えて似たような屋根の形が見られることである。トラジャ・コーヒーでお馴染みのサダン・トラジャ族(スラウェシ島)の屋根は鞍のような形をしている。倉も墓も棺もおなじ形だ。この形、日本の古墳から出土する家型埴輪に似ている。また、ミナンカバウの家とそっくりな家屋模型が南中国の石寨山から出土している。木造であれば、共通の木組みの仕方があって、どんな形でも自由自在とはいかないのである。

 屋根のない家はないといったけれど、屋根を否定したのが近代建築である。四角いマッチ箱のような家が近代建築の理想とされてきた。もちろん、近代建築にも水平な屋根はある。フラットルーフ(陸屋根)という。地中海周辺には陸屋根の美しい白い民家群が見られる。だから、陸屋根は近代建築の専売特許ではないけれども、とにかく勾配屋根は憎まれてきた。おかげで世界中の町の家並みはてんでばらばらである。

木造で陸屋根をつくれば雨が漏る。従って機能的でも合理的でもないのに陸屋根がいいという。近代建築の美学は不思議である。今でも勾配屋根を嫌う建築家は少なくない。

 

2021年10月7日木曜日

時代を遙かに透視する建築を視るために 『京都げのむ』と『建築雑誌』あるいは『都邑通信』

 時代を遙かに透視する建築を視るために,GAJapan200203/04

 

時代を遙かに透視する建築を視るために

『京都げのむ』と『建築雑誌』あるいは『都邑通信』

 

布野修司

 

 昨年、京都コミュニティ・デザイン・リーグ(京都CDL:http://www.kyoto-cdl.com)という京都のまちづくりに関わる組織を発足させ(20011月)、『京都げのむ』という雑誌を創刊した(1014日)。平行して日本建築学会の会誌の編集委員長に就任することとなり(61日)、今年の1月号から2年間、24号、『建築雑誌』の編集に携わることになった。編集部からの注文は、「建築雑誌というあるエスタブリィッシュした名門の全国規模の(でも、一つの業界内部の)メディアと京都CDLの新しい、挑戦的な、またある種地域的な雑誌に同時に関わられて」、一体なにを考えているのか、ということである。

 メディアということであれば、1850号続けた『群居』に区切りをつけて『都邑通信』(http://www.archi.kyoto-u.ac.jp/funo_lab/)という雑誌も創刊した(2001128日)ばかりだ。また、京都大学では『Traverse---新建築学研究』(20006月創刊:  http://www.archi.kyoto-u.ac.jp/TRAVERSE.html/)の編集委員でもある。編集好きなのかもしれないけれど、何も特別なことをしているつもりはない。様々な次元で考えることがあり、動くことがあり、それを記録しておきたいと思うだけだ。

個々のメディアの目指すところの詳細はそれぞれのウエッブ・サイトに委ねたい。『建築雑誌』については、1月号にその基本的スタンスを書いた。また、編集長日誌(http://news-sv.aij.or.jp/jabs/)を見ていただければ何を考えて編集しているのかお分かり頂けると思う。瓢箪から駒で、全頁カラー化が実現した経緯もそこにある。

京都CDLは、簡単に言えば、タウン・アーキテクト制のシミュレーションであり実践である。各チーム(大学の研究室)がそれぞれ地区を担当し、毎年ウォッチングし、提案を競う。それを記録するのが『京都げのむ』である。基本的に若い仲間の手に編集権がある。京都にとってかけがえのない遺伝子を発見し維持したいという思いがその命名に示されている。

半年ほど編集委員会で議論を重ねた末に1月号の特集テーマは「建築産業に未来はあるか」となった。日本の建築生産の仕組みが今こそ問われているときはないという判断がある。そして、日本の建築界が大きく転換しつつあることと京都CDLの動きは無縁ではない。というより、日本の建築家の職能の行方(生き延びる道)を鋭く直感するが故の京都CDLの運動なのである。

見るところ建築ジャーナリズムは軒並み元気がない。要するに面白くない。不況で建築作品に力がなく、広告が経るのだから仕方がない、と言うなかれ。常にテーマはあり、やることは山ほどある。どんな時代であれ、時代の根を記録すべきだし、建築の方向をめぐって議論を先導すべきである。

はっきりしているのは、建設投資が国民総生産の2割を占めるそんな時代は最早あり得ないことだ。先進諸国をみても明らかなようにそれは半減してもおかしくない。そして、スクラップ・アンド・ビルドではなく、建築ストックの再利用、維持管理が主体となっていくことも明らかである。地球環境全体の問題が大きく主題化され、省資源、リサイクルなど既に大きなテーマになりつつあるところだ。そして、建築家の多くは地域社会との結びつきを強めて行かざるを得ないことも見えている。だから、タウン・アーキテクト(コミュニティ・アーキテクト)であり、まちづくりなのだ。そして、もうひとつ挙げるとすれば、海外だろう。地球を広く見渡せば、まだまだ日本の建築家を必要とする多くの地域がある。すなわち、維持管理、まちづくり、国際化は日本の建築家のめざすべき方向に関わる3つの分野である。

そして、それ以前に建築界全体に求められることがある。歴史的に問われ続けてきた建築産業の体質が最終的に問われているのだ。公共事業に対する説明責任、設計そして施工に関わる業務発注の適正化、建築家の資格、報酬、保険、・・・要するに、建築界をめぐってテーマは目白押しなのである。建築ジャーナリズムは時代を遙かに透視する作品(言説、活動)を視ているかどうか、どう組織できるかが勝負であろう。

『建築雑誌』は従って特集テーマに困ることはない。学会、会長の掲げる方針をこなすのでも大いに忙しい。『京都げのむ』の方も、具体的な地域で何が起こっているかを記録するだけで大変である。例えば、都市再生の大合唱は果たして何を意味するのか。不況だというのに、京都の都心にマンションが林立している。考える事はいくつもあって、住んでいる場所を問うのが原点となる。『都邑通信』では、京都について一冊ものするつもりで、連載を開始したところである。

 

 

2021年10月6日水曜日

裸の建築家-タウンアーキテクト論序説 おわりに・・・まちづくりの仕掛け人

 裸の建築家・・・タウンアーキテクト論序説,建築資料研究社,2000年3月10日

裸の建築家-タウンアーキテクト論序説



 おわりに・・・まちづくりの仕掛け人


 各地でユニークなまちづくりが展開されている。ユニークなまちづくりには必ず仕掛け人がいる。この仕掛け人こそタウン・アーキテクトと呼ぶに相応しい。

 まちづくりのためには、まずは人を束ねる能力が必要である。仕掛け人は、しばしば、まちのありかたについて自由に討議する場のオルガナイザー(組織者)である。あるいはアジテーター(主唱者)である。あるいはコーディネーター(調整者)である。時にアドヴォケイター(代弁者)でもある。要するに、まちづくりを推進する仕組みや場の提案者であり、その実践者が本来のタウン・アーキテクトである。

 仕掛け人には、全体を見渡す視野の広さ、バランス感覚もいる。わがままで、特定の集団や地域のためにのみ行動するタイプは相応しくない。まちのあり方とその将来を的確に把握する見識が必要である。そうでなければ人を束ねることはできない。

 そうした意味では、タウン・アーキテクトはもちろん「建築家」である必要はない。まちづくりを仕掛ける誰もがタウン・アーキテクトでありうる。タウン・アーキテクトは、まちのすべての問題に関わって、その方向を示す役割を担う

 自治体が本来的に機能しているのだとすれば、その首長こそタウン・アーキテクトに相応しい。しかし、地方自治体とその行政システムは必ずしも、活き活きと機能していない。だからこそ、さまざまな仕掛け人が必要とされ、様々なまちづくりの試みが現れてきたのである。各地で、それぞれ独自のまちづくりの仕組みがつくられること、それが本論の前提である。

 本書では、いささか「建築家」に拘ってみた。「建築家」こそタウン・アーキテクトとしての役割を果たすべきだという思いがある。様々な条件をまとめあげる、そうしたトレーニングを受け、その能力に長けているのが「建築家」である(筈だ)。また、「建築家」は直接まちの姿(景観)に関わっている。まちづくりの質はまちのかたちに究極的には表現されるのである。 

 素直に「建築家」を考えてみよう。そもそも誰もが「建築家」でありうる。身近な「建物」に関することには全てが「建築家」に関わっている。例えば、誰でもどこかに住んでいる。大邸宅であろうとアパートであろうと(場合によると地下のコンコースや公園のような場所でも)寝起きする場所が誰にも必要だ。何処に住むか、そしてどのような住宅に住むか(住むためにどのようなシェルター(覆い)が必要か)は誰にとっても、生きていく上での大問題である。どういう住宅を建てるかが「建築家」の仕事であるとすれば、誰もが「建築家」なのである。事実、昔は、誰もが自分で自分の家を建てた。現在でも、世界を見渡せば、自分で自分の家を建てる人たちの方が多い。

 住宅に限らない。工場だろうが事務所であろうが同じである。特に、美術館や図書館、学校や病院などの誰もが利用する公共建築は、誰もが関わっている。それぞれ各人の無数の建設活動が集積することによって都市は成り立っている。都市は、だから、それぞれ「建築家」であるわれわれの作品である。

 もちろん、自分一人で「建物」を建てるのは大変である。今日、誰もが自分の手で「建物」をつくれるわけではない。だから、みんなに手伝ってもらう。また、大工さんなど「職人」さんに頼む。「建物」を建てるのにも、得手不得手があるのである。専門分化が進み、「建築」のことは「建築家」に依頼する、のが一般的である。

 しかし、「建築家」は、果たして、市民のために市民に代わって、うちを建て、様々な施設を建て、まちをつくる、そうしたプロフェッションとしての役割を果たしているだろうか。本書全体がつきつけるのは巨大な疑問符である。そしてその疑問符に答える方向性を提示するのが本書である。

 本書において残された議論は多いが、「建築家」の本来のあり方を考える材料が提供できたとすればまずはよしとしたい。問題は新たな活き活きした仕組みが日本の風土に根付くことである。


 本書はこれまで書いてきたいくつかの文章を元にしている。しかし、基本的には書き下ろしとして大幅に手を入れた。議論は荒削りではあるが、敢えて無防備に投げ出したい。大きな議論と小さなひとつの運動が開始されることを願う。