Colonial Urban Heritage
and Asian Urban Traditions， UrbanーCultural
Research Center，Graduate School of Literature and Human
Sciences， The 21st Century COE Program，
International Symposium， Osaka City University，
1st Oct.， 2006：大阪市立大学大学院文学研究科，COE国際シンポジウム
Colonial
Urban Heritage and Asian Urban Traditions
Prof. Dr. Shuji
Funo
Chairman
of Architectural Planning Committee
Chairman
of Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering (JAABE)
Architectural
Institute of Japan (AIJ)
Graduate
School of Environmental Planning The University of Shiga Prefecture
2500
Hassaka-cho , Hikone City, Shiga Prefecture 〒522-8533
tel=
+81-(0)749-28-8200（Rep）0749-28-8272
Lab. fax: 8342) e-mail funo@ses.usp.ac.jp
Introduction
I have been deeply involved in urban and
architectural fields in Asia for more than a quarter of a century since 1978,
when we started the research project on human settlements in Southeast Asia
jointly with ITS (ITS Institute Teknologi Surabaya) research Group leaded by
Prof. Johan Silas.
I firstly carried out the
field survey on kampungs (urban villages)[1],
that had decided major direction of my urban studies. The world of kampung I
had encountered opened my eyes to the vast field of Asia. I am sure now that kampung
is so interesting as a model of urban community to be developed to the
neighborhood unit of a new town even in another regions[2].
I wrote my doctorate thesis titled "Studies on Transitional Process of
Kampung and Kampung Housing System --Considerations on Alternative Strategies
for Housing"(Tokyo University) in 1987[3],
which is my first accomplishment and the base ever since.
After finishing doctorate thesis, I was
invited to participate in studies for Islamic city and happened to discover a
unique Hindu city named Cakranegara in Lombok Island next to Bali Island, which
leads me to next stage of my urban studies. To compare the Hindu city and
Muslim city became one of the objectives of my research from that time. The
fact that the formation of Muslim quarters are very different from that of
Hindu quarters in Cakranegara leads us to enlarge the field. I wrote a paper[4]
on Cakranegara in 2002.
Looking for the target
city to be compared with Cakranegara, we thought of Jaipur[5],
the capital of Rajasthan, India, famous as a gridiron city, which was constructed
in the same early 18th century by Jai Singh II. Two cities. one of
which located at the western end, and the other at the eastern end of the Hindu
civilization, were thought as two typical models, so we develop our research
framework to Indian Subcontinent. We surveyed cities as Ahmedabad[6],
Madurai[7],
Varanasi,[8]
Lahore, Delhi, Katmandu[9](Nepal),
Patan[10](Nepal),
Thimi[11](Nepal)…..
I recently wrote a book titled “The City as
Mandala; The Spatial Idea of Hindu City and its Transformation”(Japanese) in
2006 by picking up three cities, Madurai, Jaipur and Cakranegara and am
preparing with Dr. M.M Pant to publish a book titled “Stupa & Swastika; A
study on planning principles of Patan, Katmandu Valley”(English) in 2007.
Next step had come with research project on colonial city funded by
Ministry of Education and Science, Japan since 1997. We recognized the great
western impact on city planning in Asia through studies on urban tissues for
these years. For the first two years (1997-98), we concentrated on the British
colonial cities like Munbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras), Kolkata (Calcutta)[12]
in India. British have been leading modern planning method for all over the
world since mid 19th century, which is familiar with us because many
text books referred the modern urban planning history. I turn our eyes to Dutch
colonial cities in Asia, the reason for which Asia has many cities originated
from the bases(lodges, factories, forts, castles) of Portuguese and Dutch
colonial cities—especially, The Netherlands had been only country for Japanese
to contact through Dezima during 1641-1986.
The Netherlands colonized Indonesian Archipelago and established Batavia
(Jakarta) as a headquarter of Dutch East India Company (VOC), which closely
connected Dezima, Nagasaki, Japan to the Modern World system. We conducted
field surveys on Jakarta, Malacca, Galle, Colombo, Cochin[13],
Nagapattinam[14]…Cape
Town and stretched our legs lastly to Dutch colonial cities in West Indies as
Recife (Brazil), Paramaribo (Surinam), Willemstad (Curacao). In terms of
colonial cities, we had chances twice to hold international symposia at SINICA,
Taiwan[15].
In terms of cities in East Asia, I am making a study on Beijing[16],
Taipei[17],
and Korean cities till the moment with foreign students from Asia.
Based on my experiences in Asian field for a quarter
century, I would like to raise some topics related to the subject.
Ⅰ Kampung as a World
Kampung is so
interesting as a model of urban community as I mentioned above. Kampung in
Indonesian(Malaysian) language literally means ‘village’. People use the word
even in urban context. Kampungan means ‘country boy’ in the city. OED (Oxford
English Dictionary) says the word ‘kumpung’ is the origin of the word ‘compound’
although another theory says that derives from the Portuguese ‘campo’. Hearing
that the enclosed living quarter in Batavia and Malacca is called ‘kampung’ by
the natives, Englishman began to use the word ‘compound=kampung’ in India in
early 19th century, thereafter also began to use the word in Africa.
Housing and urban issues
are still big problems in Asian countries, especially in developing countries.
I think we call the major issues to mind before discussing urban heritage. The existence
of urban settlements like kampungs itself presents
urban heritage, which is not the impedance to be swept away. Most of them are
in poor condition physically, and economically but are not necessarily poor
socially. It should be emphasized that urban settlement in the developing
countries is not a slum, which shows different appearances from slums in
Western cities. Destruction of social structure, bad and criminal acts etc. are
not rarely seen in developing countries.
The characteristics of kampungs to be noticed are as follows. We can
learn a lot from kampungs, which has own system. When we plan and design the
city or urban settlement, we should respect the vernacular values urban
settlement has maintained.
(1) Variety of Kampungs
Each kampung has its own characteristics which varies according to location
(distance from the city center), constitution of income groups, migratory
backgrounds of inhabitants or mobility of population, its history, its spatial
pattern and so on. It's very important that distribution of various urban
settlements give alternatives when people choose the place to live. Even the
poorest income group can find some living quarters. Some scholar insists that
variety of kampung is only a solution to the housing problems at the moment in
developing regions.
(2) Kampung as a Whole World
Kampung
is not a mere residential settlements. New town in Japan, for example, is often
called Bed (Dormitory) Town because it has no other functions except sleeping
(staying) especially for business man. But urban settlement in general has both
functions of production and consumption. The cycle from production to
consumption can be closed within the same kampung. Living place is very near to
workplace. Almost all the daily activities can be carried out in the
neighborhood unit. It must be pointed out that kampung itself are parasitic to
the city center, which has various facilities for job opportunity. They cannot
survive without earning money from outside the kampung. But urban settlement
largely forms autonomous and self-contained community.
(3) Heterogeneity of Kampung
Kampung
forms plural society and is not a homogeneous community. Mix habitation, which
means the situation various groups live together in a same area, is a
characteristic of kampung. Rich people often live in next door to poor people.
It should be noticed that rich people support the life of the poor even in the
poorest kampungs.
(4) Kampung as a Highly Serviced
Society---Hawkers (peddlers)' culture
Everybody can get almost all the kinds of foods and goods for daily life
because street vendor and peddlers are always rambling to serve the
inhabitants. It is because job opportunity is very scarce in the kampung. But
for the inhabitants, kampung is a highly serviced society.
(5) Mutual Aid System
Kampung
communities is usually well organized. The inhabitants help themselves through
the mutual aid activities, which is indispensable in the kampung life. The
spirit of mutual aid characterizes kampung community.
(6) Preservation of Traditional Culture
People tend to preserve the traditional way of life in the rural village
from where he comes. Kampung should be considered to be a settlement that has
own vernacular values.
(7) Housing as a Process
Housing is a process. Kampungs are generated by accumulating infinite
housing process of various inhabitants. In urban (Regional) planning or housing
project, we should accept the gradual process of addition of the individual
house.
(8) Complicated Ownership Relations
It is one of the major characteristics that ownership relations are
complicated. It seems behind from the modern world, but complicated land
ownership relations sometimes resist the speculation.
T.G. McGee use the term ‘Urban
Involution’ following C. Geertz’s ‘Agricultural Involution’, which is very
suggestive in discussing the future of urban community. Every city has spatial
limits in size and cannot expand infinitely because of various reasons, among
which ecological one is crucial. How to utilize the limited urban resources is
common subject of every city. Involution, that is, evolution inward instead of extension
and expansion outward seems important. Enriching and beautifying the city
inside is needed besides developing the outer city. The lives in kampungs are
maintained by principle of shared poverty by C. Geertz. Kampung people can
survive by sharing the limited resources, proceeded our work-sharing system.
Kampung Improvement program(KIP), which I
have to neglect here, is famous as an urban strategy.
Ⅱ Historical Urban
Resources as Mutual Heritage
Most of the big cities in Asia are becoming similar and similar
because buildings are built by using the same materials and same construction techniques
based on Industrialization. Modernization or Westernization influenced all the
aspects of our daily lives and modified the structure of our cities. Looking at
old urban cores in Asian cities, we recognize how we accept the European
civilization and culture. However, buildings that formed the core of old town
in Asian countries are being replaced by high-rise buildings. Even modern
architecture built 50 years ago is hanging by a thread. How to preserve,
conserve and revitalize the old core of the cities is becoming common subject
in Asian cities.
We are very familiar with world history after Cristobal Colon ‘discovered’
‘New World’ in 1492. European countries headed by Portuguese and Spain had started
up activities overseas competitively. The ‘New World’ was divided into two by
Tordesillas treatment in 1494, which decided the western part belonged to Spain
and the eastern part belonged to Portuguese. Portuguese utilized eth existing
native networks of cities in Asia though Spain planted many colonial cities
newly based on laws of Indies in Latin America. After Portuguese established
cities like, The Dutch attacked and deprived almost all the Portuguese outposts
except Goa, Macao and so on. According to I. Wallerstein’s ‘Theory of World
System’, it was the Dutch who had firstly grasped hegemony of Modern World
System in 16th –17th century which is called ‘Century of
Netherlands’, in advance of England. The Dutch constructed Batavia(Jakarta) in
the same period when Edo(Tokyo) had been constructed and being developed.
However the Dutch handed her Asian colonial ouutposts and cities over England
in the end of 18th century, except the cities in Indonesia.
The age of Imperialism had come with England and France, which
modified the port cities built by Portugues and the Netherlands and planted
cities inland, especially in India.
The Metropolises like Kolkata, Chennnai, Munbai, New Delhi and
cities in straits colony were built by the British Empire.
As a results of the long history of European expansion in Asia as
mentioned briefly above, the great amount of colonial urban heritages are left
in Asia.
In case of many cities
whose origins are traced back to the colonial period, the problem is a little
bit complicated because reconstruction or preservation of colonial monuments
built by European recalls the memory of domination and exploitation. It is
natural for Indonesian people to oppose the proposal of reconstruction of
Batavia castle by the Netherlands.
But we have a case in Sri Lanka who launches
the concept of mutual heritage and dual parentage. European culture has already
penetrated into most of the regions in South and Southeast Asia sometimes
deeply or partially. Sri Lanka is willingly to propose, for example, Galle Fort
built by Dutch is registered as a world heritage site.
However we have another serious case in East
Asia. Old Korean National Museum (the former Japanese Colonial Office (Chosen
Sotokuhu) building) was destructed in 1995, for the 50th anniversary
of liberation, which I believe is political correctness. On the other hand, the
former Japanese Colonial Office in Taipei (Taiwan Sotokuhu) is still being used
as home of presidents. It depends the case, which way people chose.
Anyway, the periods of scrap and build have
gone. How to reuse and convert the architectural stocks are important issues
for the revitalization of the old urban core in Asian cities. We have many good
examples in Korea.
Ⅲ Asian Urban Traditions
Western ideas, methods and techniques related architecture, building
construction, and urban planning have been influential to Japan since Meiji
Restoration until now.
The dichotomy of the west and the east, or Europe vs. Asia continues
to dominate our brain and frame of references.
It is our task to discover indigenous principles of architectural
techniques and planning methods and to clarify the relationship between
regions. I wrote two text books, one is “A History of Asian Cities and
Architecture”, which is now on the process of translation both in China and
Korea and the other is “The Houses across the World”. I think a plenty of works
to stimulate our curiosity in Asian fields are left.
How to define geographical
range of Asia and how to differentiate the periods in history is the first issue to
discuss. We indeed need a global view of architectural history.
I suppose the world of
vernacular architecture as a base in each region. From the north to the south
and from the east and west, Eurasia is consisted of various districts from the
ecological view point. And Asia has 3 regional cores of
urban civilizations, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Indus and Huang He, the influence of
which extended all over Asia. Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism that rose and spread
in Asia created the architectural tradition of building types needed. Chinese
tradition of architecture and city planning is also very influential especially
in East and Southeast Asia. If we see the architectural tradition in Southeast
Asia, several layers of influences, which are Indianization, Sinicization,
Islamication, Westernization, and Modernization, are differentiated in even one
city.
What we should clarify is not one
urban system but various streams of architectural traditions in Asia.
If we look at the tradition of cities in Asia, several stories are
needed to be discussed. Asia is roughly divided into two areas in terms of
interrelations with urban form and cosmologies. Asia has two cores, which
established the idea of city, India and China. Both had strong influences to
their peripheral regions. Hindu idea of City, which had been written in “Arthasastra”
or “Vastusastra”s like “Manasara” and “Mayamata”, was transmitted to Southeast
Asian regions like Angkor, Myanmar, Thailand, Jawa, and Cakranegara. Ancient
Chinese Idea of capital city, which had been described in “周礼”考工記 and implemented later in the form of Beijing, are transmitted to
Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. However, in western part of Eurasia where is now
mostly Islam regions, we cannot find interrelations between the form of the
city and cosmology in the regions. We have to clarify the various urban
traditions in Asia.
Urban
tissues in Asian cities at present are also investigated carefully to propose
the future of the city.
Ⅳ Urban System based on the Ecological
Balance in the Region
We have a
chance to build so called Surabaya Eco house, which aims at developing the
model of collective housing in South East Asia (Humid Tropical Regions). This
experimental project firstly launch the basic plan based on our previous
studies on kampungs. Our proposal was luckily accepted as a project by IDI (International
Foundation Development of Infrastructure), and the model house was built at Surabaya
(ITS campus, Indonesia) in June 1998. We have done to monitor the environmental
conditions of Eco-cycle House. We are thinking to try the experiment based on
the analysis and to push out our model to be socialized in the near future.
The
basic techniques and methods are as follows
A.
Skeleton-Infill Structural Method
We have
designed a building’s skeleton of long-durable concrete structure, and
partitions and exterior walls (Infill) of flexible structure to accommodate
dwellers needs, allowing them to participate (Do-it-Yourself).
B. Planning
Adequate to Local Life Style
Local life
style has been given priority by enlarging sections for common use in
collective houses, with broader free and common space arrangements. Private
sections have been made more independent space.
C. Passive
Cooling Technology
①Double Roofing
To
effectively break sunlight heat, the roof has been designed as
double-layered-roof with heat-insulating and air layers. The heat-insulating material
has been developed of local products, coconut fiber. The air layer is placed
the outer-side of heat-insulator intending quick spontaneous discharge of
sunlight heat.
②Windows
and Outer Walls for Insulating Sunlight Heat
A
bigger roof and deeper eaves have been built to cut the sunlight, and a
wooden-side walls system not to absorb sunlight heat.
③Commonly
Shared Open Space Arrangements, Ventilation and Natural Lighting
The
commonly shared free and open air space has been utilized to secure horizontal
and vertical ventilation channels. Windows have been installed on the top roof
to facilitate ventilation and heat discharge, and to get natural lighting. And
a 3-story high void space has been built at the center of the building.
④Ventilation Channels in Private Sections
To
facilitate cross ventilation in private sections, an arrangement of openings
and operating system have been designed. Two openings have been installed on
the outer wall, and a vent window onto commonly shared open space. The
operating system has been designed to allow ventilation not only during daytime
but also at night.
⑤Cold
Storage by Night Ventilation
Concrete
floor slab with big thermal capacity is utilized as a cooling system. Cool air
is led into rooms by the night ventilation to store the coolness in the
concrete floor. This provides a coolant for the next daytime.
⑥Radiant Cooling System by Circulating Water
A polypropylene pipe is buried in the
concrete slab floor to circulate well water for radiant cooling effect. The
well water is kept in underground tank beneath the ground floor and is
circulated by a solar-photovoltaic driven pump. The circulated water is reused
for flushing toilets or sprinkling.
After completion
of the building, the thermal conditions have been monitored to verify the
passive cooling effect. The effects of ventilating layers and heat-insulation
materials are quite remarkable. The coconut fiber’s heat resistance can be
estimated, and it has been proved to have good heat properties as insulation
materials. The concrete floor slab was cooled down by massive ventilation at
night when temperature goes down, to determine the effects of cold storage. The
daytime temperatures are about 2 degrees lower than the case without any night
ventilation. The floor slab surface has a promising cooling radiation. Circulating-water
radiant cooling effects fluctuate according to the water temperatures. The
lower the water temperature the better the effect, but even at 28 degrees is
sufficient the radiant cooling effect.
My experience
above is so limited and has many problems to be discussed, and how to enlarge
this kind of Eco-cycled System to urban
scale is important. Urban systems based on ecological balance in the regions
are needed all over the world..
[1]
Shuji
Funo: Dominant Issues of Three Typical Kampungs and Evaluation of KIP, Peran
Perbaikan Kampung dalam Pembangunan Kota, KOTAMADJA SURABAYA ITS, 1985
[2]
Shuji
Funo, Naohiko Yamamoto, Johan Silas: Typology of Kampung Houses and their
Transformation Process A Study on Urban Tissues of Indonesian Cities, Journal
of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.1 No.2, pp193-200, Nov.
2002
[3]
AIJ Best Paper Award in 1991
[4]
Shuji
Funo: The Spatial Formation in Cakranegara, Lombok, in Peter J.M. Nas (ed.):Indonesian
town revisited, Muenster/Berlin, LitVerlag, 2002
[5]
Shuji
Funo, Lanshiang Huan, Shu Yamane, Naohiko Yamamoto, Mohan Pant: Street Pattern
Block System of Jaipur City, Rajastan, India, 3rd International Symposium on
Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture
for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25
Feb. 2000,'
Shuji Funo, Lanshiang Huan, Shu Yamane,
Naohiko Yamamoto, Mohan Pant: Building Types and Block Pattern of Jaipur City,
Rajastan, India, 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in
Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju
National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'
Shuji Funo, Naohiko Yamamoto, Mohan Pant:
Space Formation of Jaipur City, Rajastan, India-An Analysis on City Maps (1925-28)
Made by Survey of India, Journal of Asian Architecture and Building
Engineering, Vol.1 No.1 March 2002
[6]
Shuji
Funo, Shu Yamane, Norihisa Numata, Eiji Negami: Space Formation of the Street
Blocks within the Walled City of Ahmedabad (Gujarat, India), 3rd International
Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian
Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University, Cheju Island,
Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'
Shuji Funo, Shu Yamane, Norihisa Numata,
Eiji Negami: Group Form of Urban Houses of Manek Chowk District (Ahmedabad,
Gujarat, India), 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in
Asia 'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju
National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'
[7]
Ayako Otsuji, Kiwamu
Yanagisawa, Shuji Funo: Spatial Formation of Madurai, India:-Compared with
Rajdhani Plan, Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Architectural
Interchange in Asia, AIJ, 25 May, “Global Environment and Diversity of Asian
Architecture”, June 1-4, 2004, Matsue, Japan.
[8]
Kiwamu
Yanagisawa, Shuji Funo: Spatial Formation of Varanasi, India- An Analysis of
the Urban Structure---Pilgrimage Roads, Mohalla as Community, Composition of
Block and Houses, Proceedings 4th International Symposium on Architectural
Interchange in Asia, “Resource Architecture and Modern Technology”, September
17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.
[9]
Mohan
Pant and Shuji Funo: The Grid and Modular Measures in the Town Planning of Mohenjo
daro and Katmandu Valley A Study on Modular Measures in Block and Plot
Divisions in the Planning of Mohenjo daro and Sirkap (Pakistan), and Thimi
(Katmandu Valley), Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering,
Vol.4 No.1, pp5159, May. 2005
[10]
Shuji
Funo, Yasushi Takeuchi, Mohan Pant: Considerations on the Distribution of Small
Ritual Facilities on the Public Space in Patan (Katmandu Valley, Nepal), 3rd
International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia 'Challenges and
Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju National University,
Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'
[11]
Mohan
Pant, Shuji Funo: Ancestral Shrine and the Structure of Katmandu Valley Towns-the
Case of Thimi, 3rd International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia
'Challenges and Roles of Asian Architecture for the New Millennium, Cheju
National University, Cheju Island, Korea, 23-25 Feb. 2000,'
Mohan Pant, Shuji Funo: Dwelling Types of
the Town of Thimi, Katmandu Valley—An Analysis of Community Dwelling Clusters,
Proceedings 4th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, “Resource
Architecture and Modern Technology”, September 17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.
Mohan Pant, Shuji Funo: A Morphological
Analysis of Neighborhood Structure - Toles and the Ritual Artifacts of the Katmandu
Valley Towns – the Case of Thimi, ‘Special Issue The Wisdom of Asian Art and
Architecture’, “ MANUSIA” Journal of Humanities, No.3 2002
Mohan Pant, Shuji Funo: A Study on the
Pattern of Plot Division of Courtyard Residential Blocks of Patan, Katmandu
Valley, Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.3 No.1, pp197-1205,
May. 2004
[12]
] Shu
Yamane, Shuji Funo, Takashi Ikejiri: A Study on the Formation and the
Transformation of British Colonial Cities in India-Town Planning and its
Transformation after Independence in New Delhi, Proceedings 4th International
Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia, “Resource Architecture and
Modern Technology”, September 17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.
Takashi Ikejiri, Masao Ando, Shuji Funo: An
Overview of Spatial Formation and Transformation of the “Black Towns” in India,
Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in
Asia, AIJ, 25 May, “Global Environment and Diversity of Asian Architecture”,
June 1-4, 2004, Matsue, Japan.
[13]
Kyouta Yamada, Shuji Funo: Considerations on Block Formation and Residential
Typology in Fort Cochin (Kerala, India), Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium
on Architectural Interchange in Asia, AIJ, 25 May, “Global Environment and
Diversity of Asian Architecture”, June 1-4, 2004, Matsue, Japan.
[14]
KyotaYamada,
Shuji Funo: A Study on the Spatial Formation of Cochin, India-Case Study of
Dutch Colonial City in India, Proceedings 4th International Symposium on
Architectural Interchange in Asia, “Resource Architecture and Modern Technology”,
September 17-19, 2002, Chongqing, China.
[15]
布野修司、近代世界システムと植民都市の形成---Modern World System and the Formation of Colonial City, 国際学術検討会「被殖民都市與建築」---International Symposium: Urban and Architectural Histories under
Colonial Rule in Asia, Taiwan, SINICA 6-7, Sep. 2000, 台湾中央研究院,2000年9月6-7日
布野修司：
植民都市の文化変容―土着と外来―都市住居の形成 殖民都市的文化轉化；本土與外來—以城市居住形式為中心論述—, 「第二回被殖民都市與建築—本土文化與殖民文化—」國際學術研討會、台湾中央研究院台湾史研究所,11月24日,民国93（2004）年
[16]
Yi Deng, Shuji Funo, Tsutomu Shigemura: A Study on the Block Formation and its
Subdivision into the Housing Lots in the Inner City of Beijing An Analysis of
Qianlong Jingcheng Quantu, Map of the Capital City of Qianlong Period (1750),
Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.1 No.2, pp209-217,
Nov. 2002
[17]
Ming-chung Chuch,
Shuji Funo, Sadahiko Tanaka: Community Organization of the Village Settlement
and Service Area of Religious Centres: Si-Miao, in Konghinglie (Singdyam City,
Taiwan), Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.1 No.3,
pp191-198, May. 2003
