◎布野修司：基礎的空間単位の創造・・・地域の都市住宅のプロトタイプを目指して，神戸芸術工科大学，淡路夢舞台，「アジア・ニューウエーブ アジア都市の過去・現在・未来」，2000年10月22日：The Creation of Fundamental Urban Space Units・・・Towards the prototype of urban house in the region for the future， Kobe Design University， Awaji Yume Butai，Asia New Wave ：The Past， Present and Future of the Cities in Asia 22 Oct. 2000
Asia New Wave
The
Past, Present and Future of the Cities in Asia
The Creation of Fundamental Urban Space
Units・・・Towards the prototype of urban house in the
region for the future
Dr.
Shuji Funo(Kyoto University)
・Introduction ･･･ personal history of the studies
Thank you very much,
Prof., for your very kind
introduction.
I am very delighted to
be here with you and to be allowed to talk some of our research work related to
the subjects as a keynote speaker.
My name is Shuji Funo.
My first name is easy to remember. Who knows (Funo's)?
Nobody knows is the answer.
I'm from Department of
Architecture of Faculty of Engineering. My major subjects are Housing and
Regional Urban Planning. Beside the academic work, I am a kind of critic on
architectural design, so published several books in Japanese.
For these two decades, I
have been deeply involved in housing and urban problems in developing regions
especially in Asia. Today, I would like to talk about my considerations based
on my field studies in Asian regions.
I started the research work on human settlements in Southeast Asia
in 1978 with the colleagues of Toyo University. We carried out research project
titled "Transitional Process of Kampungs and Evaluation of KIP in
Indonesia" jointly with ITS (ITS Institute Teknologi Surabaya) research
Group leaded by Prof. Johan Silas.
Firstly, I would like to discuss what I have learned from the
kampung in Surabaya.Based on the study, ITS team designed so called rumah susun
model as an experimental project in Indonesia in early 90s. And we were given the opportunity to
implement the so called Surabaya Eco-house. I will show you some pictures soon.
After moving to Kyoto
University, I am concentrated on the human settlements in Lombok island for
several years. We discovered a unique Hindu city named Cakranegara. And then we
enlarge our concern to Indian sub-continent.
Jaipur
Lahore Ahmedabad Delhi
Kathumandu valley
We started the
research project titled Comparative Study on Formation and Domestication of
Colonial Cities in 1997 funded by Ministry of Education，Japan.
Firstly,
we adjusted the focus on the colonial cities in the British Empire because the
colonial cities are thought to have had been completed in the former British
Empire. So, we picked up three capital cities, New Delhi (India), Canberra
(Australia), Pretoria (South Africa) as the first axis for comparison. We
selected the South East Asian cities to compare the differences by suzerains as
the second axis. Indonesian cities (Banten, Batavia,), Taiwan (the
Netherlands), Singapore, Hong Kong and Rangoon (Great Britain), Malacca
(Portugal), Manila (Spain) and Hanoi, Saigon (France) are the cities to be
studied.
After two-year program was finished, our
concern moved to Dutch colonial cities. Happily, we could get fund for three
more years until May 2002. Title is almost the same which is Research on
Origin, Transformation, Conversion and Conservation of Urban Core of Colonial Cities.
I am given the very
broad and ambitious title of the speech.
It is not to say that I have no ability to discuss the subject as a
whole. What I can discuss is the role of the architects and planners for the
future of the cities in Asia.especially in housing field.
I believe one of the
role of the architects is to create or propose the model of the urban fabrics，for examples. prototypes of urban
houses.
Entering the main topic,
I would like to discuss what we learned from Great Hansin earthquake.
0 Lessons from GREAT
HANSHIN EARTHQUAKE
The Great Hanshin
Earthquake taught us the importance of the autonomy of urban community. I would
like to discuss about what the urban settlement should be, based on my view of
the Japanese experience as well as the field survey on kampungs of Surabaya
In the early morning on January 17, 1995,
we had experienced the Great Hanshin Earthquake. Over 6,000 people were killed
by the building collapsed, flying objects(furniture) and the fires. About
300,000 people have lost their houses and were compelled to live in the
temporary shelters until the end of August 1995 when the emergency houses were
barely completed. Still, several thousands of population are living illegally
in the tents at the public parks.
Just after the Great Hanshin Earthquake, I
walked through the area damaged 30 km from east and west several times.
What I saw was the death of the town or
the dying city. I had never known it can happen that the city dies.
And at the same time I saw the scene that
the city is going to be rebirth. I understood the importance of unity and
solidarity of urban community.
The
Great Hanshin Earthquake taught us many things in terms of urban planning and
urban communities.
(a) The Power of Nature
Those who live in the metropolis in the
developed countries tend to believe we can completely control the nature. But we
understand that is not correct when we have disasters, i.e., floods, typhoon
and earthquake. We are likely to forget the fears of the nature. As the speed of urbanization
grows faster, the Ewaste land and swampy land that was formally unsuitable for
human living have been being developed.
Cutting the hills and reclaiming the sea was thought to be killing two birds
with one stone. Nevertheless, we never forget the power of the nature.
It is very important to survey the sites
carefully and assess the environment in detail when we construct the new towns.
On the other hand, we can reconfirm the
splendid power of the nature. I'd seen the trees in front of houses that
protected them from fire. It is also very important to use the potentialities of
the land and the natural surroundings.
(b) The Limitations of Urban Development
Strategies
Those who were damaged the most severely
this time are the weak of the societies living in the inner city, the
handicapped, the urban poor, the foreigners and so on. The fact reveals the
results and evidences that the local governments had not improved inner areas
that had needed environmental improvement programs. They had given priorities
over the developments of the new town like promoters and developers, because it
is more effective to develop the city from the economical view points. As a
result, they had ignored and putted off the urban renewal projects. The Great
Hanshin Earthquake reveals the limits of urban growth development strategies.
(c) The Weakness of the Networks of Urban
Infrastructures
The faults of systems of infrastructures
are also recognized. All the railroad lines and trunk roads run from east to
west and those from north to south are very few because of the conditions of
topography.
The systems of water, electricity and gas
supply services, had the same faults. There are no alternatives and double
systems. We need multi-pole network systems in place of one-pole centered
systems.
(d) The Scarcity of Public spaces
The most useful facilities to recover the
urban communities are public(elementary and secondary) schools for shelter and
convenience stores for food supply. Neighborhood facilities are very important
in case of emergency as well as in daily life. It was very serious that
hospitals, offices of local government, Efire station and police station were
destroyed. We knew that the
We
should build public facilities based on the high standards.
The scarcity of urban public spaces(parks,
playgrounds, sport fields) was fatal because we had even no spaces to build
emergency houses after disasters.
(e) The Importance of the Autonomy of Urban
Settlements
The situations that people only had been
seeing their houses being burned and hearing the call for help without nothing
to do because of no means, were miserable. We need water, foods and other daily
necessaries in the neighborhood units. We had buried the well and covered the
river for convenience, so there was no water around us to put out the
fire. The urban settlements should be
self-supported.
The autonomy of urban community is so
important to help each other.
(f) The Possibilities of Volunteers in Urban
Planning
The volunteers worked hard and well to
recover the damage. Japan had no volunteer system, but volunteers gathered
spontaneously. We recognize Non-Profit Organization has to be organized as a
network system to help the daily life as well as emergent situation.
The reconstruction programs after Great
Hanshin Earthquake do not necessarily go well because of many reasons.
Community architecture has not roots in Japanese society yet. People's
participation and bottom up process are inevitable in urban development,
especially in urban renewal.
Cities and Urbanization in the
Developing Countries(Regions)
Before entering to consider the realities in the third world cities, I'd
like to discuss the framework and theory to approach the realities.
（１）Characteristics
of Urbanization Process in the Developing Countries
Levels and Velocity of Urbanization
Many statistical data says the explosive increase of world population.
In the very beginning of 19th century, the estimated world population was 900
million. Through the ages after Industrial Revolution, it grows more and more,
and reach to about 1.6 billion in the beginning of 20th century. 1950-2.5B
1960-3B 1984-4.8B
what do you guess is the world population now? It is are now reaching 6 billion. No. already
reached 6 billion.
But
we have to pay attention to the fact that this trend of population growth
differs region by region.
90% of the increase of world population we will see in the developing
area. The distribution of world population is greatly changing. The ratio of
population in the developed countries is decreasing to less than 20%.
The rapid increase of population in the developing countries causes the
food shortage problems, energy shortage problems, environmental resource
problems. One of the serious issues is housing problems caused by rapid
urbanization.
The Urban phenomena we see in the developing regions is different from
that of developed countries. I'd like to point out several characteristics of
urbanization in developing countries, Firstly....
Primate City and Urbanization
(1) The
existence of primate city
In case of developing countries, it sometimes happens that only one
big city dominates the region. We call
that kind of city Primate City which is named by M. Jefferson in 1939. It's the
term of geography. That is the largest city in the region which has no rival
city. Manila, Bangkok, Seoul, Tokyo
In case of developed countries, it is general that hierarchical(proportional) order
called rank-size rule exits among sizes of cities. The cities which form the
network are interrelated one another within the same country. 1 Tokyo
1/2 Osaka 1/3 Nagoya
But in the developing area, we see often only one big city in the
region. The rank size rule was launched in 1941 by G. Zwip which claim that
there is proportional order between the number of cities that has the same size
and the number that has another
size.
Why
this kind of bias happened? We have several theories that try to explain the
phenomena of the primate city.
●Urbanization
without Industrialization
It
is said in general that the degree of urbanization follows the degree of
industrialization in developed countries. Modern industry promotes urbanization
and vice versa. Urbanization draw Industrialization.
Urbanization
- Industrialization is the dual process of space-organization as follows.
One
process is this. The collapse of the structure of rural society push out the
population to the urban area which serve the laborer to the industry. On the
other hand, the transformation from manufacturing to factory production system
needs the concentration of labor. Urban area pull the laborer from rural area.
Urbanization promotesl Industrialization、providing labor. Industrialization promotes urbanization.
Many theory clarifies the fact that there exists close relations between
urbanization and Industrialization (economic development). Scholar
tends to believe both are the same process. But the situation is very different in developing countries. The level
of urbanization always exceeds the level of Industrialization. So one scholar
launched the concept of Over-Urbanization
or Urbanization without Industrialization.
We need
another theory to explain the different phenomena from western countries. We have to understand multiple process of
urbanization and multiple structure of urban society.
I'd
like to introduce the key word to explain that multiple process and structure
and discuss the special quality of cities in the developing countries.
A
Colonial City
Most of developing countries had experiences of colonization by western
countries. That experience in the colonial period greatly influenced the
process of urbanization and the characteristics of urban society in the
developing countries. The large cities in SEA and South Asia have developed
being based on the colonial city.
Colonial cities were constructed on the base of native port town by
introducing the western system of domination.
The relation between native town and colonial city newly established is
multiple. There is the case as in Latin
America that new city was constructed on tabla rasa (white paper) after native social system was completely destroyed, But even in
that case, two systems were linked together in various way. One of the major features of cities in Developing countries is derived
from the remains of linked heterogeneous systems in the colonial period.
B. Plural Society
The
major role of colonial authority is to plant the people to the occupied land.
To manage the colony, sovereign countries and colonial authorities do plant
people in various way. In order to
develop the plantation and mines, governor immigrate laborers from outside of
the regions. Many black people were forced to move to Latin America. In case of
colonial cities in South east Asia,
laborers are compelled to move to the city from various region. There
are merchants like Indian and Chinese who are voluntarily without compulsion.
As a result, the complicated society that is consisted of many tribes and
ethnic groups is formed. J.S. Furnival called society of colonial city
"Plural Society".
The
nature of plural society is not only characterized by the fact that society are
consisted of various tribes. In terms of social order, the hierarchy of the
class, the segregation of inhabitants exits in colonial society. The
confrontation (contradiction) between dominate rulers and subordinates penetrates into the bottom
of the society. As for the ruling class, there exists the difference between
the elite and creole who does not know the home-country. And also there exists
definite conflict between native elite and other common people. We can see many
discrimination among tribes and religious groups. Mestizo, Eurasian, Murate...
many half-breed.
Plural society can be seen in almost all the
colonial city and contemporary city in the developing countries..
C. Dual
Structure
The
characteristics of plural society and pararel existence of native town and
western city formation often reflects to the spatial structure of the city. It
is generally seen that the area the ruling class live and the area native live
are segregated. The settlements each ethnic groups live in are also segregated according to tribes and birthplace. The names of the
streets are often derived from those of the native regions.
The
segregation among ethnic groups is becoming unclear. But the competitive
separation between the ruling elites and the people in common still exists in the third world city. If we
use the term of economics, the spatial separation between firm sector and
bazaar sector, or formal sector and
informal sector is the special character of the city.
The
central business district is for the people who work in the firm sector. The
bazaar sector absorb the over urbanized populations.
D.
Urban village
Over-urbanization produces the huge amount of so called slum. But what
is slum?. I want to raise the question. The term of slum is derived from
slumber which means sleepy. You know?
Is it right?
The deteriorated settlements low income people live in the developing
countries are not the slum, are not the same one in western countries. We
cannot understand them by the western concept of slum. The process of
urbanization and structure of the city is different. In western modern city,
slum is within the city and only a part of the city, and is located in special
district. On the contrary, the area spread all over the city in the developing
countries. In western slum, we often see
the phenomena such as criminal acts, alienation, family disorganization. But
the urban settlements are in general well organized in developing countries.
The
settlements low income people live in are different region by region and called
variously. Kampung in Malaysia and Indonesia. Barong barong in Philippines,
Barrios in South America. Bidonvilles in North Africa. Gece Kondu in Turkey.
Bustee in India.
It is a major point that urban settlements preserve a rural social relationship
and traditional subculture.
The word of huge village is often used for the city in the developing
countries. Urban village is also
suitable term for the urban settlements in the developing countries.
Rural community still exists within the city.
Barangay in Philippines. Mohalla in India. Rukun tetanga in Indonesia.
The Process and Structure of Urbanization
Theory on Urbanization and Developing
Countries
How do you explain the existence of primate city or the phenomena of
over-urbanization or Urbanization without Industrialization?
We
have to amend the western model of Urbanization in order to understand the
realities in developing countries. The process of urbanization is not linear
process.
Theory of dual economy is widely and roughly accepted to explain the
distortion (strain) of the economic structure.
Dual structure of economy, that is,
coexistence of western and urban
capitalist economy and indigenous pre-industrial economy will be explained in the following way.
Dual
system promotes the mono-culturization in the rural area and push out the large
amount of peasants to the city. But the city cannot absorb the peasants as
factory-workers because of underdevelopment of the industry. As a result, phenomena called over-urbanization
appeared. Surplus population live in an informal sector. They are parasitic to
the formal sector of economy. They serve their daily lives by themselves.
Informal sector continue to invite more populations from rural area to the
city. Then primate city is generated.
We
need several concept to classify the pattern of urbanization process.
R.
Redfield and M. Singer distinguish Primary urbanization and Secondary
urbanization as for the stage of urbanization.
And the concept of Ortho genetic transformation and Heterogenetic
transformation are introduced to understand the transformation process of the
city.
The
term of Primary urbanization is used for urbanization in the age of
Pre-Industrial society. Secondary urbanization means the urbanization caused by
and after Industrial Revolution. G.
Shoberg began to use the word of
Pre-industrial city.
Ortho genetic transformation is for the case
when the transformation from folk society to urban society is caused from
inside the society which is autonomous change.
Hetero genetic transformation is caused by encounter with different
culture and contact with foreign society which is structural change.
B.
Hozelitz distinguish the Generative city from the Parasitic City. Urbanization
in Generative city contribute to the economic development but urbanization in
Parasitic city does not necessarily contribute to the economic growth.
Now
we can classify the process and structure of urbanization in developing
countries.
Ortho → Prim→ Hetero ｛Ⅰ｝
Iudustrial Revolution→ Second→ Hetero｛Ⅱ｝
Prim → Ortho → ｛Ⅲ｝
Colonization → Hetero →Second→Ortho｛Ⅳ｝
Economic Aspect
Generative Parasitic
Cultural
Transform
{Ⅰ] ｛Ⅱ｝
Hetero Hetero
Prim Second
Conservation
｛Ⅲ｝ ｛Ⅳ｝
Ortho Ortho
Prim Second
{Ⅰ}・・・local cities in developed countries
{Ⅱ}・・・modern metoropolis
{Ⅲ}・・・Historical cities in developing countries
{Ⅳ}・・・large primate cities
Urban Involution
Lastly, I'd like to discuss about the concept
of Urban Involution. The term of involution is very interesting to compare with
the term of evolution.
In
case of evolution, the process of transformation is a forward movement and
expanding. The process of involution is a inward movement and not expanding.
The whole form does not change in involution process. Only the parts are
sub-divided successively. An
anthropologist begins to use the word in terms of using the architectural style
of Gothic as a metaphor. After the
Gothic style was completed, the whole style did not change. Only the ornament
in the detail became finer and finer.
A
famous American anthropologist use the term of agricultural involution to
explain the process of development in 19th century Jawa . Though the area of rice field did not
increase, the population increased. That is involution process. Though the
total amount of resources are limited in the city in developing countries,
population increase. That is urban involution. C. Geertz also use the term shared poverty. Towords the sustainable society, we never
want infinite expansion. The concept of involution and shared resouses are
worthy to be discussed.
Ⅰ Learning from Kampungs
Kampung as a Model of Urban Community
I have been in charge with the field work
on kampungs(urban villages) in Surabaya, Indonesia, for these 20 years with
Prof. Johan Silas. He always teaches me
a lot about what human settlements are or should be. I believe kampung is so
interesting as a model of urban community.
I am concerned about how the characteristics of kampung as an urban
community can be developed to the neighborhood unit of a new town in Southeast
Asian countries.
Surabaya
A.
This is Surabaya in 1825. We cannot see any town but only factory surrounded by
so called village The name of Surabaya is firstly seen in old inscription in 13th
century and is said to have been the port of Javanese kingdom. Yu”n attacked
Surabaya in the same period the dynasty attacked Japan.
Dutch occupied Surabaya area in 1743. We
have two cases in Dutch oversees settlements, one of which was founded on
virgin land and the other was founded on the indigenous settlement. The third
case is that of taking over the other European fortress.
B.
This is Surabaya in 1866 just before Meizi era began. We can see Kalimas
castle, several bastions and moat, which surrounded kampungs. This is the one
of the archetype of colonial cities.
Surabaya, you imagine, is the second largest
city in Indonesia, the population of which is over 300 million. In the
beginning of 20th century, the population of Surabaya was 150,000,
so Surabaya experienced rapid urbanization during this 20th like
other cities developed on colonial foundation.
I visit Surabaya almost every year from the
first visit in 1981. I visited Surabaya 16 times for these 20 years, which is
my second hometown and starting place of every thing. My interest in Dutch
colonial cities is of course from early field studies.
C～E
I have learned a lot from kampungs.
KIP
Kampung
as a Model of Urban Community
Most of kampungs is in poor condition
physically and economically, but are not necessarily poor socially. It should
be emphasized that kampung is not a slum. Kampung shows different appearances
from urban settlements in western cities. Destruction of social structure,
wicked acts, criminal acts are not rarely seen in the kampung. It is not a
discriminated settlement but community that has own system and value.
The characteristics of kampung that has
own values as an urban community to be noticed are as follows.
(1) Variety of Kampungs
Each kampung has its own characteristics,
which varies with its location (distance
from the city center), constitution of income groups, migratory backgrounds of
inhabitants or mobility of population, its history its spatial pattern and so
on. So it is a little bit hard to talk
about kampung in general that is the
reason we classify kampungs at least into three i.e. urban kampung,
fringe kampung, and rural kampung, according to their location.
It's very important that distribution of
various kampungs give alternatives when people choose the place to live. Even the poorest income group can find some
kampungs to live. As J.Silas pointed
out, variety of kampungs is only a solution to the housing problems at the
moment.
Residential areas in Japan are rather
monotonous and homogeneous everywhere and are losing their localities and
identities. It's very interesting
various kampungs scattered widely in the city.
(2) Kampung as a Whole World
Kampung is not only a residential
area. New town in Japan is often called
Bed town because it has no other functions except sleeping (staying). But kampung produces many things by home
industry. Kampung has both functions of
production and consumption, which is different from Bed town in Japan that only
consume goods.
Circulation system of goods is not so
simple but it is a characteristic that circle of production and consumption can
be closed within the kampung. Living
place is very near to workplace, which means that all the activities can be
carried out in the neighborhood.
Kampung itself is parasitic on various
facilities of the city and cannot survive without earning money from outside
the kampung. But kampung life is
autonomous.
(3) Heterogeneity of Kampung
Kampung is not a homogeneous
community. Rich people used to live next
to poor people. Complexity of
inhabitants is a characteristic of
kampung. It is sure that people from
same region tend to live in the same area.
But relationships between different groups are not always
exclusive. It should be noticed that
rich people support the life of the poor even in poorest kampung.
(4) Kampung as a Highly Serviced Society
---Rombung Culture
Everybody can get almost all the kinds of
foods and goods for daily life within the kampung, because Rombung (float) and
street peddler (Vendor) always served inhabitants. Many kinds of Vendors had visited down town
area of Tokyo before, but Japan lost such Rombung culture.
It is because opportunities of getting
jobs are very few that we can see many rombungs and vendors in the kampung. But
to the inhabitants, kampung is a highly serviced society.
(5) Mutual Aid System ---Gotong Royonag,
Arisan
Kampung has a hierarchical administration
system. RT-RW system looks like a
top-down system, and it is said Japanese armies introduce that kind of system
(Tonarigumi or Chounaikai) to
Indonesia. But on the other hand, it is
also pointed out that traditional society has such kind of community
organization system. In any case, the
spirits of mutual aid characterize kampung community. Gotong Royong activities and Arisan system
are indispensable to kampung life.
(6) Preservation of Traditional Culture
It is often seen in the kampung that
newcomers build the same style of house as that in rural village from where
they come. People tend to preserve the
traditional way of life, which is also one of characteristics of the
kampung. The standard type of kampung
house has of course a relation to the rural traditional house in East Jawa.
Kampung should be considered to be a settlement that has own vernacular values
in Indonesia.
(7) Kampung Housing as a Process
As chapter IV describes housing in the
kampung is a process. Kampung is
generated by accumulating many housing processes of various inhabitants.
(8) Complexity of Ownership Relations
It is one of the major characteristics
that ownership relations are complicated.
Modern land laws introduced by Dutch and traditional laws (Adat) coexist
in the kampung. Relations between
primary right and secondary right are not easily understood for
foreigners.
Ⅱ
Self help Housing to Rumah Susun & Surabaya Eco-House
How to solve the urban problems is the
major object of planning and housing policies in Southeast Asian countries as
well as other developing countries. Each country has its own policies and
strategies for the problems according to its own situations.
Mass production housing system supplying people with a huge amount
of dwelling units by public authorities is the most popular system each country
had adopted in the first stage. But it soon became clear that such a western
idea of housing does not necessarily take effect to the actual conditions in
Southeast Asian countries. The reasons for which supplying high rise
residential areas do not go well to solve the urban problems are that low cost
housing projects cost much more money than other projects and can not supply
the quantity of dwelling units needed. Low cost housing could not be low income
housing in the real situation. Furthermore, we can also point out that the
modern form of house did not fit to way of life that differs cultural
backgrounds and could not be accepted by people.
Slum clearance & redevelopment program is also the major strategy to
solve the problems directly. But it is not easy to clear the slum because the
problems are deeply connected with the social, economical and political
structure of each country. It was often said that slum clearance ends creating
new slum elsewhere as a result. Slum clearances rather tend to expand
contradictions in society and be resisted.
Resettlement projects aim at decentralizing over populations in
urban center to suburbs or rural areas but did not go well because they often
lack the provision for various facilities and people can not get the
opportunities for jobs. It is also a cause that they are costly.
Much has been said and written about sites and services projects. Many people may
consider sites and services projects to be nothing more or less than only
creators of new slum neighborhoods and would like to see them definitively
abolished. Certainly in case that sites and services projects are realized as
resettlement projects we can see the phenomena inhabitants go back to the
previous urban areas. It was a fact that projects areas became new slums soon.
But there are others who support them and claim that such projects, well
planned and realized, should constitute one of the new forms or means that are
within the reach of the poorest levels of the population. I think experience
during these decades has shown that they are not valid for all, but the
possibilities should be pursued more. Core house projects carried out with
sites and services are interesting from an architectural view point. Combining
more alternatives and elements, there can be possibilities creating various
environments. Sites and services projects should be integrated into their local
environment, avoiding the previous error of isolation. The location of its
habitants, recreational facilities, commercial centers, means of transportation
should be taken into account.
The subject is how the self-contained
community can be created.
Rumah Susun
Surabaya Eco house
F～G
We
were given to design and build an experimental pilot house for the humid
tropics as an urban house prototype. The model was completed in 1998 and has
been monitored as for room condition.
Surabaya Eco-House
We
introduced several concepts and techniques into the model.
1
Skeleton-Infill Structural Method
2 Passive Cooling Technology
Double-Roofing/ Using local materials
Coconut fiber/ Radiant Cooling System by circulating Well water/ Ventilation
using chimney effect
Ⅲ
Urban Studies
After moving to Kyoto University, I am concentrated on the human
settlements in Lombok island. We discovered a unique Hindu city named
Cakranegara.
Cakranegara A～D
I started urban studies at Kyoto University
from 1991. First of all, we happen to find Cakranegara city, which is located
in Lombok Island just next to Bali.
This is the map of Cakranegara that gave us
the moment to investigate the city because we had never known this kind of
gridiron city. I think you; Dutch scholars and even Indonesian professor do not
know the city. The grid city is believed not to be seen in Indonesia.
We discovered Cakranegara city is colonial
city that was founded by Balinese Kingdom in early 18th century.
The comparison with other grid city like Kyoto
is the first concern. We clarified the block and street system by analyzing the
size of lots and blocks, and measurement system.
Cakranegara city as a Hindu city is very
interesting also in terms of relation between block system and community
organization. We discussed the relations between them.
Segregation between the Hindu and Muslim is
the topic from the beginning.
5.
Jaipur A～C
After finishing the first stage of the
study, we thought what cities would be the target city. We looked for the
cities founded in 18th century in Asian region suitable to compare
them with Cakranegara. We listed Hue, Taipei…. And found a famous grid (chess
board) city in India, Jaipur.
Jaipur city was founded in 18th century.
Jaipur City designed by Jai Singh II(1688ｰ1743) is thought to
had been constructed based on the Hindu cosmology, about which many scholars
are still discussing. We are so much interested in the principles of space
formation of Jaipur City and discussed the planning theory in terms of
measurement systems of streets' width and length, systems of dividing the block
(Chowkri) and the distribution of the religious facilities through the analysis
of 43 City Maps (1925-28).
Repeatedly, the reason why we pick up Jaipur
is to compare Cakranegara (Lombok, Indonesia), which was found as a colonial
city of Balinese Hindu kingdom in the same period of early 18th century.
Distribution of population is very
interesting in both cities where the Hindu occupied the center and the Muslim
the periphery.
6. Urban Studies in Asia
If we list the
subjects we are interested in, are these.
The grid: We can
see the gridiron town planning all over the world, past and present, in the
East and the West. Many cities of the Greek and Roman world are based on an
extremely regular plan derived from a regular grid of streets. Almost all the
colonial cities are gridiron Cities.
Cosmology: We can
point out the following facts in terms of capital towns in Asia.
1. There are two
areas in Asia in relation to power-cosmology complex. One is the area in which
cosmology and philosophy that gives the grounds and legitimacy of the dynasty
reflects the directly concrete layout of the city. The other is the area in
which we cannot necessarily find distinct relation between city form and
cosmology.
2. There are two cases, one case where the
transcendental model of the ideal city exists and the real city form is
considered as a metaphor of the model, the other where the real functional
logic dominates the formation of the city. Even in the former case, it is very
rare that the idea is realized completely. The relation between ideal types and
the city structure changes age by age.
3. The ideal form of the city tends to be
realized in the periphery of the urban civilization rather than its center (the
origin).
If we divide the world
(A) that has the idea of capital city as the representation of its own
cosmology and the world (B) that has no idea of capital city, China and India
belong to the world (A) and the Islam world belongs to the world (B). The
boundary between (A) and (B) exists the line that connects Indian
sub-continent, Tarim Basin and the Mongol plain. The Forestry Zone in Asia belongs
to the world (A) excepting the cool Temperate Zones.
The ideas of capital city which originate in China and India had prevailed and been accepted
in their surrounding areas. The world (A) is divided into two parts, the center
core (A1) that formed the idea and the periphery (A2) that received it. The world
(A1) and the world (A2) are formed in the vicinity of the two centers, central
china and central India. Korea, Japan and Vietnam are the areas that accepted
the idea of ancient China. Southeast Asia, not including North Vietnam is the
area that accepted the idea of ancient India.
Islamic City: But
there are areas that have no tradition of the gridiron. Town planning.
Generally speaking, Islam world has not such a tradition.
In closing, I wish to express my great appreciation
once again to Prof. A for inviting me to participate in this symposium.
Thank you very much for your kind attention
and patience.
Ⅱ "All cities are in a way colonial cities"
The Subjects of Studies on Colonial Cities
I am
not a historian but architect or planner as I mentioned，so much interested
in morphology of the cities. I have to make an excuse on my biased view of
builder in advance. Nevertheless, I will make an emphasis that special
formation of colonial cities should be one of the crucial subjects when we
discuss the Modern World System.
First
of all, I would like to introduce you the urban studies we have been carrying
out in my laboratory.
I
should like to give this speech in three parts. The first part deals with the
subjects related to the colonial cities in British Empire. The second part
concerns Dutch colonial cities. And lastly, I will show you some new materials
on Zeelandia.
Many our colleagues are participating in this symposium. Dr. Ron
from Paris，UNESCO，who has just finished his dissertation on
Dutch colonial cities will give us the important information on our subjects.
Dr. Samitha from Sri Lanka, who graduated from Kyoto University, will report
Galle and Dutch Fort Cities in Sri Lanka. Naohiko Yamamoto, who is now in
Surabaya, will report Kampong Improvement Program in the 193os.
As for
Japanese occupancy in Asia, I trust other colleagues who are more responsible
for that although I have interests with the cities in North China, Korea and
Taipei and wrote some papers with young professor, one of who is prof. Han from
Korea.
So, I
am only playing an opening performance. Every severe question is delivered to
them, following speaker.
Let’s enter the main subject. To begin with,
I would like to summarize the subjects or viewpoints of the study.
All
which I would like to say is summarized in this sentence” All the cities are
in a way colonial cities” by R, Home. What I want to emphasize is
that we can see and discuss the essence of the cities if we consider various
aspects of colonial cities.
We have
several theories in terms of the origin of the city. It is clear if we follow
the theory that the power is the primary factor of the origin of the city. The
city originates by the power in order to exploit the surplus of rural village.
It
seems obvious colonial cities are spatial devices to dominate the people in the
colony. They are spatial arrangement to mediate (connect-separate) the
sovereign country and the colony. If we consider the city in general the
spatial device for domination, it can be said,
"All the cities are in a way colonial cities". Considerations
on colonial cities lead us to consider the nature of city planning.
We also
have to pay attention the facts that most of capitals or large cities in the
developing countries (regions) are originated in the colonial period. The urban
and housing problems, from which they are suffering at present, have the roots
in the historical process of the development as a colonial city. The formation
of colonial cities by the power of suzerains in the beginning and the
domestication by nation-state after independent are clues to the problems.
The first point I think is this.
A.
Colonial cities Ｉwill discuss here
are so called modern colonial cities; Colonial cities, which had been founded
by European Empires after Columbus’s discovery of New World, are different from
colonial cities in general. The formation of modern colonial cities is parallel
to the formation of Modern World System which I.Wallerstein launches as only
system in World History. Colonial Cities before belong to
'World Empire'. What became keys of formation of Modern European economy in the
16 centuries are colonial cities in the periphery．The theory of
world system discusses the networks of World Economy and relations among core，semi－periphery and
periphery，but pay
no attention to the substantial form of cities. Here we think it is our subject
to clarify the space formation of colonial cities. The space formation of
colonial cities has been supporting the Modern World System and are succeeded
to the space formation principles in contemporary cities in all over the world,
We can or should participate in the discussion
of World System or World Urban System from the viewpoints of physical planner.
What we should clarify is this.
B.
What ideas of planning decide the form of
colonial cities? Who (What subjects or
organizations) plan the city? Who build
the city? What kinds of process are
needed to implement the idea of the city?
What is the institutional framework of building colonial cities? These questions above are subjects here. It
is needless to say that these are also the fundamental issues of contemporary
urban and regional planning in nature.
It is important to discuss the theories and
backgrounds of the influential model.
C.
In the early stage of colonization,
facilities called factories were needed as a base of trade and replenishment on
the coastal area. The bases were developed to the fortified city that contains
factory plus residential facilities where the political and military strategies
are given the priority in this stage. Fort building technologies are the keys
to compete the rivals as well as military technologies. From the end of 16th
century to 17th century, The Netherlands that had followed up Portuguese and
Spain initiated the colonial city building. We have the interesting model
of "ideal port city" by Simon
Stevin.
In this point, we
have to review all the books on ideal city especially in the Renaissance. And we have to compare the various models
like Indies law by Philip II and Grand Model by Granvillesharp.
Typology of colonial cities are needed to
explain the process of formation of world system.
D.
The towns were gradually formed
in the surrounding of the fortified city Colonizer plant (immigrate) the people
to build and support the city. So-called white town and black town were formed
being distinctively segregated.
Segregation among various ethnic groups becomes our important subjects.
We can classify the colonial cities into several patterns according to the
existence of native settlements and towns. Spanish colonial cities in Latin
America were constructed on the native towns completely destroyed. We have the case in Australia where only
European builds the city without contact with the native aborigines. In China
in the late 19th century, colony was built within the existent city. When
the colonization proceed toward inland, another type of town were needed like
the British cantonment and hill station.
To clarify the supporting ideologies is one of
the subjects of the study,
E.
The
process of building colonial cities are various according to their context? The
military occupation to get the native products like spices were common in the
beginning, but the situation changed after Industrial Revolution because
colonial societies became the huge market. As the policy of indirect rule was
adopted, the economical and cultural dominance was given priority in place of
direct military rule. To plant ideologies and values of sovereign societies by
making a copy and a miniature of a part of them became the major strategy.
To criticize
the contemporary urban planning method or to get the alternative view of
planning is major issues.
F.
The
colonies turned to be experimental fields for the history of modern urban
planning. New world had been regarded as a place of utopia to many religious
groups. Many trials to build utopia based on the philosophy of so called
"fanciful socialism" like those of St. Simon, R. Owen and C. Fourier
were also carried out in the New World. On the other hand, the institutional
framework and urban planning codes, which were built to deal with the urban
issues, and housing problems caused by rapid urbanization after Industrial
Revolution, were exported to the colonial cities. Especially, the concept of
public health strongly influenced the colonial city planning.
G.
The
ideas and policies of modern urban planning were not exported one way to the
colonies. Attentions should be paid that colonial experience influenced the
policies and technologies of urban planning in the western countries. The fact
that institutional framework for urban strategies were set up earlier in the
colonies are often overlooked. The experiences in the colonies were imported to
the western society as in case of "Garden city".
To reflect the relation between modern urban
planning and colonial experience from the end of 19th century to 20th century
leads us to reconsider the nature of modern urban planning.
Ⅲ The Making Of British Colonial
Cities
Well, I will review the history of British
Colonial Cities and the urban planning following R. Home who wrote one book
titled “Of planting and planning” which we translated into Japanese and are
going to publish next year through Kyoto University Academic Press. That is
very nice guide for us.
Many of the largest cities in the world today are creatures of
British colonialism.
This is the content of the
book. He described the history of British oversees expansion from the beginning
to 20th century, post－colonial period according to
topics.
R. Home discusses Grand Model
in the first chapter.
Ⅰ Grand Model of Colonial Settlement
English oversea expansion began with Ulster Plantation(Londonderry, Colerain) from
1610-40. Lord Shaftsbury formulate the way of planting
and called it Grand Model. He himself
was imvolved in development of Carolina colony The Grand Model was elaborated during the 18th
century and reached its most sophisticated expression in Adelaide city plan of
Colonel Light in 1836/37.
The model was evolved as times go on. In
1660s, 1680s, Charleston and Philadelphia are the typical case. Several leaders
are known as succesors of Shaftsbury. Benjamin in Georgia and Oglesope in Savanna
in 1730ｓ
are those. The books written by Granville Sharp who commited to Sierra Leone:
Freetown in 1780s were very influential. And came the age of Australia &
New Zeeland in 1830s.
We can summarize the main components of the
British model of colonial town planning as follows.
Deliberate Urbanization: A policy of deliberate urbanization had
its mediaeval origins in Britain and applied to overseas plantations and
colonies. The late in 19th century, the opposite policy was being applied.
Decentralization, the main aim of the garden city and new town movement,is that
social order would be best preserved by moving away from the turbulent and
politicized urban masses to places of safety.
Allocation of Town and Country Land Rights: The policy of deliberate urbanization
could be secured through the land management by structuring a symbiotic
relationship between town and country. Each settler , for instance in Savannah,
would receive country lots of 45 acres, garden or suburban lots of 5 acres and
a town lot of less than an acre.
Town Planning in Advance of Settlement: The town site was to be laid out in advance
of occupation, according to a prepared plan. But, The plan is plan on the
paper.
Wide Streets in Geometric Form:
Public Squares
Standard-Sized Rectangular Plots:
street Philadelphia/Charleston 100ft/60ft 50ft/:
Savanna 75ft/ Kingston 50or66ft/ Freetown 80ft/ Adelaide 132ft backlane 12ft/22ft
town lot: Charleston 300sqf Savanna 60*90ft Kingston 50*150ft Siera leone 96ft3i*288ft9inches→48ft*76ｆｔ
Public Land Reservations：Land was to be reserved for public purposes
or as a source of public revenue.
Green Belts： Green Belts that is physical separation of town and country by a building-free zone usually encircling the town are the most famous of British planning concepts.
We can
accept these components without question because these were delivered to modern
urban planning ideas and concepts. What we should reconfirm is what had
happened under these ideas in realities.
Ⅱ The Shapers of Colonial Urban Landscapes
As an
architect and urban planner, we are so interested in professinals who are
responsible for building cities. Besides everything, which cities are
attractive to our eys is the keys to consider the urban heritage.
We
can see the new professionals of colonial settlements which had the social
status with colonial cities. Modern
specialists were born in close relation with the colonial experiences.
.
•Military
Governor The founders of the colonial cities in the early stage are military
commanders or explorers and traders. There are military statesmen who left
their names as those of the cities like Brisbane, Darling. Bourke. and D'Urban.
Stanford Ruffles who built Singapore was the statesman who influenced the
policies of colonial development. Francis Light who founded George Town
(Penang) as a South East Asian base of East India Company was a trader and
developer whose son, William Light is famous as a builder of Adelaide
Brisbane、Darling、Bourke、D'Urban
Stanford Ruffles Jan van Reebeck
•The Land Surveyors
Thomas Raven mapped the plantation of Ulster. James Cook who is
famous as a explorer of Oceania surveyed the St. Lawrence River when he was
young. W. Light is well known. Mitchell and Hoddle were active in Australia.
•The Engineers
Kitchener in Khartoum/ Fraser
and R.Napier in Bengal/ Maclean in Jerusalem
The civil engineers created their own
institute in Britain in 1818. royal chartered in 1828 King's College London
introduced cources in civil engineering from 1838.
•Doctors and Public Health Specialists
The medical profession acquired a dominance in the latter years of
the 19th century. Plague is the key factor to decide the lay out of the town. W.
Simpson was the most influential doctor at that time.
•Architects and Town Planners
George
Coleman in Singapore, Francis Greenway in Sydney, John Sulman A.Thompson in
Cape Town Ranchester Geddes Maxwell Fry
Ashed Arbercrombee
Ⅲ Port Cities
British Empire's first port cities were the
three Presidency towns of the British East India Company. These are Bombay,
Madras and Calcutta. They form links in a world economy and global network of
the cities.
Ⅳ Warehousing
Colonialism relocated millions of people to
distant places. They were not only white but also non-white , both temporary
migrant workers and permanent settles. They had to accomodate themselves to new
environment and build their houses. In the process, New housing forms were created and modified.
The Bungalow
Single House Shotgun House
Barrack Housing
Hostel
Compound
The Chawl
Shophouse
Cottage
Ⅴ Racial Segregation
The distinctive social characteristic of the
colonial city is the fact of race. The spacial separation of races maitained
both cultural differences and power relationships. Segregation is one of the
most critical problems we have to consider regarding colonial cities.
Ⅵ The Idea of Town Planning
The highlights of the colonial city planning
in the former half of 20th century are planning of the three capitals in
British Empire, New Delhi, Pretoria and Canberra. The relations and communications
between architects and planners who took part in those projects are intimate as
H.Baker were invited to design the major building in New Delhi from South
Africa and W. Griffin worked India besides the works in U.S.A. and Australia.
It is interesting subject here to clarify the role of professionals like
architects and planners who export the basic idea of planning.
Ⅶ Legislation Institutionalization
Ⅷ Transition to Independence
Ⅳ Studies on Dutch Colonial Cities
1. Research Framework
This shows tentative contents of our report which must be written
until next year.
2. Dutch-founded Settlements
Overseas
Cape Town －Colombo(Galle)－ Maracca－Batavia－
Zeelandia－ Deshima
Here we have the interesting subject, Jan van Reebeck who was the
founder of Cape Town. He got on board of VOC as a young surgeon to Btavia when
he was 20 years old. He had been to Deshima (Nagasaki) as a trader in 1642.
After coming back to Amsterdam, he was designated as a founder of Cape Town in
1651 and lastly died in Batavia. From the existence of the person like Jan van
Reebeck, we can recall the network among the cities, Amsterdam, Cape Town,
Colombo, Galle, Maraca, Batavia, Formosa and Nagasaki.
3. Dutch Colonial Urban Planning
Dutch overseas expansion began in the end of
16th century. Before 1602 when VOC（Dutch East India Company）was established,
there was no central body in the Dutch Republic to organize shipping and trade
overseas. The first company, Compagnie van Verre (Company for distant trade),
started its activities in 1592.
The
trials to establish the fortress and permanent settlement began in 1599 by
Pieter van der Does whose fleet had two military engineers. But the enterprise
all failed before the establishment of Nassau fort in on Gold coast in 1610.
Before that, Dutch captured Portuguese fortress Leitimor and renamed it
Victoria in 1605.
Duytsche Mathematique: Many engineers and architects participated
in founding fortress and settlement from the beginning of 17th
century. We have one big man who played an important role in the Dutch colonial
urban planning. He is Simon Stevin, the great scientist in those days who is
well known to us that he make the ideal port city. He published several books
on science and technologies. As for Stevin, I entrust Dr. Ron to analyze his
works.
One
of his achievement is that he established engineering school called Duytsche Mathematique in Leiden University in 1600 with Prince
Maurice which educated and trained many engineers and land surveyors. Academia de Matematicas by Philip
II is said its model. The principal motivation for founding the Duytsche Mathematique had been the need for
military engineers in the war in the Netherlands against Spain.
There were opportunities to receive an
education overseas by taking private lessons with an experienced surveyor and engineers
on the Job training, trained land surveyors and engineers needed assistants who
could be trained by his superior. Examples are found on Taiwan, Batavia and Sri
Lanka.
On
Taiwan, the German soldier Casper Schmalkalden was employed as a land surveyor
between 1648-1650. He was probably the assistant to the chartered land surveyor
Cornelis Jansz Plockhoy, active 1647-54.
Engineers: The
number of land surveyors rose rapidly until 1675 and declined somewhat thereafter.
Dutch military and civil engineers were attracted to military service all over
Europe. Dutch engineers were active in fortification, city building and civil
engineering projects in Scandinavia, Germany, Poland, England and even Italy.
Engineers and surveyors were also exported to Dutch overseas territories for
the layout of towns, building fortifications and organization of the territory.
Fabriek: Land surveyors and engineers acted as land administrators, town
builders and architects. They often obtained a higher administrative post
overseas. Among them, there were two prominent figures; Johan
Maurits van Nassau in Brazil and Johannes van Walbeeck in Curacao.
Technocrats in general are called ‘fabriek fabrieken’
An earlier example of such professional is Jan
van den Brouck of Antwerp. We have several names that were active in Dutch
overseas territories,
Rules and
Procedures for Urban Planning:
A uniform rules and procedures were
applied in Dutch’ America, Africa and Asia. For instance, one standard
measurement was used: Rijnlandse roede or Rhineland rod (377.7cm). One
exception is Surinam where Bloysche roede (361.7cm), Zeelandia measure, was
used as an official unit. Land surveyors measured distances with a chain, which
are 5.5 Rhineland rods in length.
Simon Stevin plotted distances in ‘steps’ (one
step is 2,5 Rhineland feet).
In terms of legislation, a higher degree of
uniformity overseas is also found. For the entire chartered territory of the
VOC, the 1642 Batavia law code, known as the Bataviasche Statuten, were in use.
Directors promoted uniformity of practices
through the coordination of building activities in the Republic and overseas
government. Before starting any construction, local Governors had to send their
plans to superiors and specialists in Batavia and the Republic.
And
we have the manuals and maps. For example, Pieter
Beaumont and Willem Mogge received five books below.
○
Hendrick Ruse, Versterckte vesting,
uytgevonden in velerley voorvallen, en geobserveert in dese latest oorlogen,
soo in de Vereenigde Nederlanden, als in Vranckrijck, Duytsland, Italien,
Dalmatien, Albanien, en die daer aengelegen landen. T’Amsterdam, 1654
○
Gerard Melder, Korte en klare instructie van
regulare en iregulare fortificatie, met haere buyten-wercken; te gebruyccken
defensive en offensive: een compagnie, een regiment, een leger te voet en te
paert te logeren Amsterdam 1664;
○
Simon Stevin, Sterckten-bouwingh, T’Amsterdam, 1624
○
Balthasar Gerbier, Cryghs-architecture,
ende de fortificatien gestelt in de Fransche, ende Engelsche tale; Delft, 1652
○
Samuer Marolois, Forti-ficatie, dat is,
sterckte bouwing. A Amsterdam, 1651
Paramaribo:
Lastly,
I will show you slides of Zeelandia you have never seen.
The history of Surinam as a country begins
after its discovery by the Spaniards Alonso de Ojeda and Juan de la Cosa, in
1499. The English colonized the area around 1650-51. Dutch arrived in Surinam
in 1667. The Zeeland commander Abraham Crijnssen and his men drove the English
out of Surinam during the Second English War and took the Fort into their
possession and rename it Fort Zeelandia. As is well known, Dutch exchange New Amsterdam
(New York) with Zeelandia.
Plural society Segregation
Catholics Hindu Muslim Jew
All the houses are made of wood. Where the
styles of houses are from is interesting subject. Gable and veranda chracterize
the house style.
Regarding Paramaribo, one of the students is
now preparing a report based on the field visit. We have many things to
analyze. The load of tasks is beyond our capacity and I want to invite many
young researchers to join the research projects,
In closing, I wish to express my great appreciation
once again to Prof. A for inviting me to participate in this symposium.
Thank you very much for your kind attention
and patience.
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